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===Umum===
===Umum===
* {{cite book| last = Chapman| first = V.J.| title = Seaweeds and their Uses| year = 1950| publisher = Methuen & Co. Ltd| location = London| isbn = 978-0-412-15740-0 }}
* {{cite book|last = Chapman|first = V.J.|title = Seaweeds and their Uses|year = 1950|publisher = Methuen & Co. Ltd|location = London|isbn = 978-0-412-15740-0 }}
* Fritsch, F.E. (1935/1945). ''The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae''. I. and II. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
* Fritsch, F.E. (1935/1945). ''The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae''. I. and II. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
* van den Hoek, C., D.G. Mann, and H.M. Jahns (1995). ''Algae: an introduction to phycology''. Cambridge University Press (623 pp).
* van den Hoek, C., D.G. Mann, and H.M. Jahns (1995). ''Algae: an introduction to phycology''. Cambridge University Press (623 pp).
* {{cite book| last = Lembi| first = C.A.| last2 = Waaland| first2 = J.R.| title = Algae and Human Affairs| year = 1988| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge| isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0 }}
* {{cite book|last = Lembi|first = C.A.|last2 = Waaland|first2 = J.R.|title = Algae and Human Affairs|year = 1988|publisher = Cambridge University Press|location = Cambridge|isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0 }}
* {{cite book| last = Mumford| first = T F| last2 = Miura| first2 = A| editor-last = Lembi| editor-first = C A| editor2-last = Waaland| editor2-first = J R| title = Algae and Human Affairs| year = 1988| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0| pages = 87–117| contribution = ''Porphyra'' as food: cultivation and economic }}.
* {{cite book|last = Mumford|first = T F|last2 = Miura|first2 = A|editor-last = Lembi|editor-first = C A|editor2-last = Waaland|editor2-first = J R|title = Algae and Human Affairs|year = 1988|publisher = Cambridge University Press|isbn = 978-0-521-32115-0|pages = 87–117|contribution = ''Porphyra'' as food: cultivation and economic }}.
* {{cite book| last = Round| first = F E| title = The Ecology of Algae| year = 1981| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = London| isbn = 978-0-521-22583-0 }}
* {{cite book|last = Round|first = F E|title = The Ecology of Algae|year = 1981|publisher = Cambridge University Press|location = London|isbn = 978-0-521-22583-0 }}
* Smith, G.M. (1938). [https://archive.org/details/cryptogamicbotan031880mbp ''Cryptogamic Botany'', vol. 1]. McGraw-Hill, New York.
* Smith, G.M. (1938). [https://archive.org/details/cryptogamicbotan031880mbp ''Cryptogamic Botany'', vol. 1]. McGraw-Hill, New York.


===Regional===
===Regional===
;Britania dan Irlandia
;Britania dan Irlandia
* {{cite book| last = Brodie| first = Juliet| last2 = Burrows| first2 = Elsie M| last3 = Chamberlain| first3 = Yvonne M.| last4 = Christensen| first4 = Tyge| last5 = Dixon| first5 = Peter Stanley| last6 = Fletcher| first6 = R.L.| last7 = Hommersand| first7 = Max H| last8 = Irvine| first8 = Linda M| last9 = Maggs| first9 = Christine A| displayauthors=8|title = Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History)| year = 1977–2003| publisher = British Museum (Natural History), HMSO, Intercept| location = London, Andover| isbn = 978-0-565-00781-2 }}
* {{cite book|last = Brodie|first = Juliet|last2 = Burrows|first2 = Elsie M|last3 = Chamberlain|first3 = Yvonne M.|last4 = Christensen|first4 = Tyge|last5 = Dixon|first5 = Peter Stanley|last6 = Fletcher|first6 = R.L.|last7 = Hommersand|first7 = Max H|last8 = Irvine|first8 = Linda M|last9 = Maggs|first9 = Christine A|displayauthors=8|title = Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History)|year = 1977–2003|publisher = British Museum (Natural History), HMSO, Intercept|location = London, Andover|isbn = 978-0-565-00781-2 }}
* {{cite book|last=Cullinane|first=John P|year=1973|title=Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland|location=Cork|publisher=Cork University Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Cullinane|first=John P|year=1973|title=Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland|location=Cork|publisher=Cork University Press}}
* {{cite book| last = Hardy| first = F G| last2 = Aspinall| first2 = R J| title = An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham| year = 1988| publisher = Northumberland Biological Records Centre| location = The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne| isbn = 978-0-9509680-5-6 }}
* {{cite book|last = Hardy|first = F G|last2 = Aspinall|first2 = R J|title = An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham|year = 1988|publisher = Northumberland Biological Records Centre|location = The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne|isbn = 978-0-9509680-5-6 }}
* {{cite book| last = Hardy| first = F G| last2 = Guiry| first2 = Michael D| last3 = Arnold| first3 = Henry R| title = A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland| edition = Revised| year = 2006| publisher = British Phycological Society| location = London| isbn = 978-3-906166-35-3 }}
* {{cite book|last = Hardy|first = F G|last2 = Guiry|first2 = Michael D|last3 = Arnold|first3 = Henry R|title = A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland|edition = Revised|year = 2006|publisher = British Phycological Society|location = London|isbn = 978-3-906166-35-3 }}
* {{cite book| last = John| first = D M| last2 = Whitton| first2 = B A| last3 = Brook| first3 = J A| title = The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles| year = 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge, UK; New York| isbn = 978-0-521-77051-4 }}
* {{cite book|last = John|first = D M|last2 = Whitton|first2 = B A|last3 = Brook|first3 = J A|title = The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles|year = 2002|publisher = Cambridge University Press|location = Cambridge, UK; New York|isbn = 978-0-521-77051-4 }}
* {{cite book|last=Knight|first=Margery|last2=Parke|first2=Mary W|title=Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man|year=1931|location=Liverpool|publisher=University Press|series=Liverpool Marine Biology Committee (LMBC) Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals|volume=XXX}}
* {{cite book|last=Knight|first=Margery|last2=Parke|first2=Mary W|title=Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man|year=1931|location=Liverpool|publisher=University Press|series=Liverpool Marine Biology Committee (LMBC) Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals|volume=XXX}}
* {{cite book|last=Morton|first=Osborne|year=1994|title=Marine Algae of Northern Ireland|location=Belfast|publisher=Ulster Museum|isbn=978-0-900761-28-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Morton|first=Osborne|year=1994|title=Marine Algae of Northern Ireland|location=Belfast|publisher=Ulster Museum|isbn=978-0-900761-28-7}}
Baris 118: Baris 118:


;Australia
;Australia
* {{cite book| last = Huisman| first = J M| title = Marine Plants of Australia| year = 2000| publisher = University of Western Australian (UWA) Press| isbn = 978-1-876268-33-6 }}
* {{cite book|last = Huisman|first = J M|title = Marine Plants of Australia|year = 2000|publisher = University of Western Australian (UWA) Press|isbn = 978-1-876268-33-6 }}


;Selandia Baru
;Selandia Baru
Baris 124: Baris 124:


;Eropa
;Eropa
* {{cite book| last1 = Cabioc'h| first1 = Jacqueline| last2 = Floc'h| first2 = Jean-Yves| last3 = Le Toquin| first3 = Alain| last4 = Boudouresque| first4 = Charles-François| last5 = Meinesz| first5 = Alexandre| last6 = Verlaque| first6 = Marc| title = Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Méditerranée| year = 1992| publisher = Delachaux et Niestlé| location = Lausanne, Suisse| language = French| isbn = 978-2-603-00848-5 }}
* {{cite book|last1 = Cabioc'h|first1 = Jacqueline|last2 = Floc'h|first2 = Jean-Yves|last3 = Le Toquin|first3 = Alain|last4 = Boudouresque|first4 = Charles-François|last5 = Meinesz|first5 = Alexandre|last6 = Verlaque|first6 = Marc|title = Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Méditerranée|year = 1992|publisher = Delachaux et Niestlé|location = Lausanne, Suisse|language = French|isbn = 978-2-603-00848-5 }}
* {{cite book|title=Les Algues de côtes françaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'écologie, la biologie et la systématique des algues marines|first=Paulette|last= Gayral|language= French|location=Paris| publisher=Doin, Deren et Cie|year=1966}}
* {{cite book|title=Les Algues de côtes françaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'écologie, la biologie et la systématique des algues marines|first=Paulette|last= Gayral|language= French|location=Paris|publisher=Doin, Deren et Cie|year=1966}}
* {{cite book| last = Guiry| first = M.D.| last2 = Blunden| first2 = G.| title = Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential| year = 1991| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-92947-5 }}
* {{cite book|last = Guiry|first = M.D.|last2 = Blunden|first2 = G.|title = Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential|year = 1991|publisher = John Wiley & Sons|isbn = 978-0-471-92947-5 }}
* {{cite book|last=Míguez Rodríguez|first=Luís|year=1998|title=Algas mariñas de Galicia: bioloxía, gastronomía, industria|language=Galician|publisher=Edicións Xerais de Galicia|location=[[Vigo]]|isbn=978-84-8302-263-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Míguez Rodríguez|first=Luís|year=1998|title=Algas mariñas de Galicia: bioloxía, gastronomía, industria|language=Galician|publisher=Edicións Xerais de Galicia|location=[[Vigo]]|isbn=978-84-8302-263-4}}
* {{cite book| last = Otero| first = J.| title = Guía das macroalgas de Galicia| year = 2002| publisher = Baía Edicións| location = [[A Coruña]]| language = Galician| isbn = 978-84-89803-22-0 }}
* {{cite book|last = Otero|first = J.|title = Guía das macroalgas de Galicia|year = 2002|publisher = Baía Edicións|location = [[A Coruña]]|language = Galician|isbn = 978-84-89803-22-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bárbara |first=I. |last2=Cremades |first2=J. |year=1993 |title=Guía de las algas del litoral gallego |language=Spanish |publisher=Concello da Coruña – Casa das Ciencias |location=A Coruña}}
* {{cite book |last=Bárbara |first=I. |last2=Cremades |first2=J. |year=1993 |title=Guía de las algas del litoral gallego |language=Spanish |publisher=Concello da Coruña – Casa das Ciencias |location=A Coruña}}


Baris 147: Baris 147:


;Afrika Selatan
;Afrika Selatan
* {{cite book|author2= Bolton, J.J.|author3= Anderson, R.J.| last = Stegenga| first = H.| title = Seaweeds of the South African West Coast| year = 1997| publisher = Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town| isbn = 978-0-7992-1793-3 }}
* {{cite book|author2= Bolton, J.J.|author3= Anderson, R.J.|last = Stegenga|first = H.|title = Seaweeds of the South African West Coast|year = 1997|publisher = Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town|isbn = 978-0-7992-1793-3 }}


;Amerika Utara
;Amerika Utara
* {{cite book| last2 = Hollenberg |first2=G.J.| last = Abbott| first = I.A.| title = Marine Algae of California| year = 1976| publisher = Stanford University Press| location = California| isbn = 978-0-8047-0867-8 }}
* {{cite book|last2 = Hollenberg |first2=G.J.|last = Abbott|first = I.A.|title = Marine Algae of California|year = 1976|publisher = Stanford University Press|location = California|isbn = 978-0-8047-0867-8 }}
* {{cite book|last=Greeson|first= Phillip E.|year= 1982 |title=An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States| publisher=US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey| location=Washington, D.C.| url=http://www.archive.org/details/annotatedkeytoid00gree|accessdate=19 December 2008}}
* {{cite book|last=Greeson|first= Phillip E.|year= 1982 |title=An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States|publisher=US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey|location=Washington, D.C.|url=http://www.archive.org/details/annotatedkeytoid00gree|accessdate=19 December 2008}}
* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first= William Randolph|year=1969 |origyear=1937, 1957, 1962|title=Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location= Ann Arbor|isbn=978-0-472-04904-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first= William Randolph|year=1969 |origyear=1937, 1957, 1962|title=Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location= Ann Arbor|isbn=978-0-472-04904-2}}
* {{cite book| last = Wehr| first = J D| last2 = Sheath| first2 = R G| title = Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification| year = 2003| publisher = Academic Press| location = US| isbn = 978-0-12-741550-5 }}
* {{cite book|last = Wehr|first = J D|last2 = Sheath|first2 = R G|title = Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification|year = 2003|publisher = Academic Press|location = US|isbn = 978-0-12-741550-5 }}
{{Refend}}
{{Refend}}


Revisi per 13 Maret 2016 10.54

Alga
Rentang fosil: Mesoproterozoic–saat ini[1]
Berbagai macam alga tumbuh di dasar laut di air dangkal
Berbagai macam alga tumbuh di dasar laut di air dangkal
Klasifikasi ilmiah
Domain: Eukaryota, Bacteria
Kelompok yang termasuk
Kelompok yang tidak termasuk

Alga (jamak Algae) adalah sekelompok organisme autotrof yang tidak memiliki organ dengan perbedaan fungsi yang nyata. Alga bahkan dapat dianggap tidak memiliki "organ" seperti yang dimiliki tumbuhan (akar, batang, daun, dan sebagainya). Karena itu, alga pernah digolongkan pula sebagai tumbuhan bertalus.

Istilah ganggang pernah dipakai bagi alga, namun sekarang tidak dianjurkan karena dapat menyebabkan kekacauan arti dengan sejumlah tumbuhan yang hidup di air lainnya, seperti Hydrilla.

Dalam taksonomi yang banyak didukung para pakar biologi, alga tidak lagi dimasukkan dalam satu kelompok divisi atau kelas tersendiri, namun dipisah-pisahkan sesuai dengan fakta-fakta yang bermunculan saat ini. Dengan demikian alga bukanlah satu kelompok takson tersendiri.

Kelompok-kelompok alga

Dalam pustaka-pustaka lama, alga selalu gagal diusahakan masuk dalam satu kelompok, baik yang bersel satu maupun yang bersel banyak. Salah satu contohnya adalah pemisahan alga bersel satu (misalnya Euglena ke dalam Protozoa) dari alga bersel banyak (ke dalam Thallophyta).

Belakangan disadari sepenuhnya bahwa pengelompokan sebagai satu klad tidak memungkinkan bagi semua alga, bahkan setelah dipisahkan berdasarkan organisasi selnya, karena sebagian alga bersel satu lebih dekat berkerabat dengan alga bersel banyak tertentu.

Saat ini, alga hijau dimasukkan ke dalam kelompok (klad) yang lebih berdekatan dengan semua tumbuhan fotosintetik (membentuk klad Viridiplantae). Alga merah merupakan kelompok tersendiri (Rhodophycophyta atau Rhodophyceae); demikian juga alga pirang (Phaeophycophyta atau Phaeophyceae) dan alga keemasan (Chrysophyceae).

Alga prokariotik

Alga biru-hijau kini dimasukkan sebagai bakteri sehingga dinamakan Cyanobacteria ("bakteri biru-hijau", dulu disebut Cyanophyceae, "alga biru-hijau") Dengan demikian, sebutan "alga" menjadi tidak valid. Cyanobacteria memiliki struktur sel prokariotik seperti halnya bakteri, namun mampu melakukan fotosintesis langsung karena memiliki klorofil.

Sebelumnya, alga ini bersama bakteri masuk ke dalam kerajaan Monera. Akan tetapi dalam perkembangan selanjutnya diketahui bahwa ia lebih banyak memiliki karakteristik bakteri sehingga dimasukkan ke dalam kelompok bakteri benar (Eubacteria). Sebagai tambahan, beberapa kelompok organisme yang sebelumnya dimasukkan sebagai bakteri, sekarang malah dipisahkan menjadi kerajaan tersendiri, Archaea.

Alga eukariotik

Diagram yang menggambarkan teori mengenai evolusi alga (dan tumbuhan) masa kini yang banyak didukung.

Jenis-jenis alga lainnya memiliki struktur sel eukariotik dan mampu berfotosintesis, entah dengan klorofil maupun dengan pigmen-pigmen lain yang membantu dalam asimilasi energi.

Dalam taksonomi paling modern, alga-alga eukariotik meliputi filum/divisio berikut ini. Perlu disadari bahwa pengelompokan semua alga eukariotik sebagai Protista dianggap tidak valid lagi karena sebagian alga (misalnya alga hijau dan alga merah) lebih dekat kekerabatannya dengan tumbuhan daripada eukariota bersel satu lainnya.

Referensi

  1. ^ N. J. Butterfield (2000). "Bangiomorpha pubescens n. gen., n. sp.: implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes". Paleobiology. 26 (3): 386–404. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0094-8373. 

Bibliografi

Umum

  • Chapman, V.J. (1950). Seaweeds and their Uses. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-0-412-15740-0. 
  • Fritsch, F.E. (1935/1945). The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. I. and II. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
  • van den Hoek, C., D.G. Mann, and H.M. Jahns (1995). Algae: an introduction to phycology. Cambridge University Press (623 pp).
  • Lembi, C.A.; Waaland, J.R. (1988). Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32115-0. 
  • Mumford, T F; Miura, A (1988). "Porphyra as food: cultivation and economic". Dalam Lembi, C A; Waaland, J R. Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 87–117. ISBN 978-0-521-32115-0. .
  • Round, F E (1981). The Ecology of Algae. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22583-0. 
  • Smith, G.M. (1938). Cryptogamic Botany, vol. 1. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Regional

Britania dan Irlandia
  • Brodie, Juliet; Burrows, Elsie M; Chamberlain, Yvonne M.; Christensen, Tyge; Dixon, Peter Stanley; Fletcher, R.L.; Hommersand, Max H; Irvine, Linda M; et al. (1977–2003). Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History). London, Andover: British Museum (Natural History), HMSO, Intercept. ISBN 978-0-565-00781-2. 
  • Cullinane, John P (1973). Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland. Cork: Cork University Press. 
  • Hardy, F G; Aspinall, R J (1988). An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham. The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumberland Biological Records Centre. ISBN 978-0-9509680-5-6. 
  • Hardy, F G; Guiry, Michael D; Arnold, Henry R (2006). A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland (edisi ke-Revised). London: British Phycological Society. ISBN 978-3-906166-35-3. 
  • John, D M; Whitton, B A; Brook, J A (2002). The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77051-4. 
  • Knight, Margery; Parke, Mary W (1931). Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man. Liverpool Marine Biology Committee (LMBC) Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals. XXX. Liverpool: University Press. 
  • Morton, Osborne (1994). Marine Algae of Northern Ireland. Belfast: Ulster Museum. ISBN 978-0-900761-28-7. 
  • Morton, Osborne (1 December 2003). "The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland". Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society. 27: 3–164. 
Australia
  • Huisman, J M (2000). Marine Plants of Australia. University of Western Australian (UWA) Press. ISBN 978-1-876268-33-6. 
Selandia Baru
  • Chapman, Valentine Jackson; Lindauer, VW; Aiken, M; Dromgoole, FI (1970) [1900, 1956, 1961, 1969]. The Marine algae of New Zealand. London; Lehre, Germany: Linnaean Society of London; Cramer. 
Eropa
  • Cabioc'h, Jacqueline; Floc'h, Jean-Yves; Le Toquin, Alain; Boudouresque, Charles-François; Meinesz, Alexandre; Verlaque, Marc (1992). Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Méditerranée (dalam bahasa French). Lausanne, Suisse: Delachaux et Niestlé. ISBN 978-2-603-00848-5. 
  • Gayral, Paulette (1966). Les Algues de côtes françaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'écologie, la biologie et la systématique des algues marines (dalam bahasa French). Paris: Doin, Deren et Cie. 
  • Guiry, M.D.; Blunden, G. (1991). Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-92947-5. 
  • Míguez Rodríguez, Luís (1998). Algas mariñas de Galicia: bioloxía, gastronomía, industria (dalam bahasa Galician). Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia. ISBN 978-84-8302-263-4. 
  • Otero, J. (2002). Guía das macroalgas de Galicia (dalam bahasa Galician). A Coruña: Baía Edicións. ISBN 978-84-89803-22-0. 
  • Bárbara, I.; Cremades, J. (1993). Guía de las algas del litoral gallego (dalam bahasa Spanish). A Coruña: Concello da Coruña – Casa das Ciencias. 
Arktik
  • Kjellman, Frans Reinhold (1883). The algae of the Arctic Sea: a survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora. 20. Stockholm: Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. hlm. 1–350. 
Greenland
  • Lund, Søren Jensen (1959). The Marine Algae of East Greenland. Kövenhavn: C.A. Reitzel. 9584734. 
Kepulauan Faroe
  • Børgesen, Frederik (1970) [1903]. "Marine Algae". Dalam Warming, Eugene. Botany of the Faröes Based Upon Danish Investigations. Part II. København: Det nordiske Forlag. hlm. 339–532. .
Kepulauan Canary
  • Børgesen, Frederik (1936) [1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930]. Marine Algae from the Canary Islands. København: Bianco Lunos. 
Maroko
  • Gayral, Paulette (1958). Algues de la côte atlantique marocaine (dalam bahasa French). Casablanca: Rabat [Société des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc]. 
Afrika Selatan
  • Stegenga, H.; Bolton, J.J.; Anderson, R.J. (1997). Seaweeds of the South African West Coast. Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town. ISBN 978-0-7992-1793-3. 
Amerika Utara

Pranala luar

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