Bahasa Sanskerta: Perbedaan antara revisi
RaFaDa20631 (bicara | kontrib) |
RaFaDa20631 (bicara | kontrib) |
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Baris 328: | Baris 328: | ||
* [[Daftar nama yang mengandung unsur Sanskerta]] |
* [[Daftar nama yang mengandung unsur Sanskerta]] |
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== Referensi == |
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{{reflist}} |
{{reflist}} |
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===Daftar pustaka=== |
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{{Refbegin|30em}} |
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| year = 1955 |
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| title = Buddhist Sanskrit |
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| journal = The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |
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| volume = 87 | pages= 13–24 | number= 1/2 |
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| publisher = Cambridge University Press |
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| jstor = 25581326 | doi= 10.1017/S0035869X00106975 |
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}} |
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|last=Banerji |first=Sures |
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|year=1989 |
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|title=A Companion to Sanskrit Literature: Spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends, and several appendices |
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|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |
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|author=Shlomo Biderman |
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|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfTzz8EsEbAC |
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|year=2008 |
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|publisher=Columbia University Press |
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*{{cite book |
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|author1=Claire Bowern |
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|title=The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics |
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|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wu4ABAAAQBAJ |
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|year=2015 |
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|publisher=Routledge |
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|isbn=978-1-317-74324-8 |
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* {{cite book |
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|author=John L. Brockington |
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|title=The Sanskrit Epics |
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|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |
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|year=1998 |
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|publisher=BRILL Academic |
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|isbn=978-90-04-10260-6 |
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* {{cite conference |
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|title=Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit: The Original Language |
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|author=Johannes Bronkhorst |author-link=Johannes Bronkhorst |
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|year=1993 |
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|book-title=Aspects of Buddhist Sanskrit: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Language of Sanskrit Buddhist Texts, 1–5 Oct. 1991 |
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|publisher=Sarnath |
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|pages=396–423 |
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|isbn=978-81-900149-1-5 |
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* {{Cite book |
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|last=Bryant |first=Edwin |author-link=Edwin Bryant (author) |
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|title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate |
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|publisher=Oxford University Press |
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|place=Oxford, UK |
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|year=2001 |
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|isbn=978-0-19-513777-4 |
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*{{cite book |
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|author1=Edwin Francis Bryant |
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|author2=Laurie L. Patton |
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|title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History |
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|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHYnGde4BS4C |
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|year=2005 |
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|publisher=Psychology Press |
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|isbn=978-0-7007-1463-6 |
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*{{cite book |
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|last=Burrow |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Burrow |
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|title=The Sanskrit Language |
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|year=1973 |
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|edition=3rd, revised |
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|location=London |publisher=Faber & Faber |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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|author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr. |
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|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |
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|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |
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|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA504 |
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|date= 2013 |
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|publisher=Princeton University Press |
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|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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|title=Sanskrit Language |
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| author=George Cardona |
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| year=2012 |
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|publisher= Encyclopaedia Britannica |
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|url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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|author=James Clackson |
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|title=Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction |
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|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJDjNp6wODoC |
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|date=18 October 2007 |
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|publisher=Cambridge University Press |
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|isbn=978-1-139-46734-6 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| last=Coulson | first=Michael |
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| title=Sanskrit : an introduction to the classical language |
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| editor1=Richard Gombrich |
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| editor2=James Benson |
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| edition=2nd, revised by Gombrich and Benson |
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| publisher=Random House |
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| year=1992 |
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| isbn=978-0-340-56867-5 | oclc=26550827 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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|author1=Michael Coulson |
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|author2=Richard Gombrich |
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|author3=James Benson |
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|title=Complete Sanskrit: A Teach Yourself Guide |
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|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLkRAUhzlkIC |
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|year=2011 |
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|publisher=Mcgraw-Hill |
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|isbn=978-0-07-175266-4 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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| author=Harold G. Coward |
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| title=The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies |
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| volume=5 |
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| editor=Karl Potter |
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| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC |
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| year=1990 |
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| publisher=Princeton University Press |
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| isbn=978-81-208-0426-5 |
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}} |
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*{{cite journal |
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| author = Suniti Kumar Chatterji |
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| year = 1957 |
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| title = Indianism and Sanskrit |
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| journal = Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |
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| volume = 38 | number= 1/2 |pages= 1–33 |
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| publisher = Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |
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| jstor=44082791 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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|author=Peter T. Daniels |
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|title=The World's Writing Systems |
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|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ |
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|year=1996 |
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|publisher=Oxford University Press |
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|isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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|first=Madhav |last=Deshpande |
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|year=2011 |
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|contribution=Efforts to vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of success and failure |
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|editor1=Joshua Fishman |
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|editor2=Ofelia Garcia |
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|title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The success-failure continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts |
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|volume=2 |
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|publisher=Oxford University Press |
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|isbn=978-0-19-983799-1 |
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}} |
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*{{cite book |
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|author=Will Durant |
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|title=Our oriental heritage |
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|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lSJxAAAAMAAJ |
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|year=1963 |
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|publisher=Simon & Schuster |
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|isbn=978-1567310122 |
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}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Eltschinger|first1=Vincent|title=Why Did the Buddhists Adopt Sanskrit?|journal=Open Linguistics|volume=3|issue=1|year=2017|issn=2300-9969|doi=10.1515/opli-2017-0015|doi-access=free}} |
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*{{cite journal|title=Sanskrit as Language of Communication | author=J. Filliozat| journal = Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute| volume = 36| number= 3/4| year= 1955|pages= 179–189|publisher = Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute | jstor= 44082954}} |
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*{{Citation|last1=Filliozat|first1=Pierre-Sylvain|year=2004|chapter=Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature|pages=360–375|editor1-last=Chemla|editor1-first=Karine |editor1-link=Karine Chemla|editor2-last=Cohen |editor2-first=Robert S.|editor3-last=Renn|editor3-first=Jürgen|display-editors=3 |editor4-last=Gavroglu|editor4-first=Kostas|title=History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science)|publisher=Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7|isbn=978-1-4020-2320-0}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat|title=The Sanskrit Language: An Overview : History and Structure, Linguistic and Philosophical Representations, Uses and Users|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ij1jAAAAMAAJ |year=2000|publisher=Indica |isbn=978-81-86569-17-7}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Benjamin W. Fortson, IV|title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC |year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5968-8}} |
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*{{cite book |author1=Robert P. Goldman|author2=Sally J Sutherland Goldman|title=Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65fqnQEACAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Center for South Asia Studies, University of California Press}} |
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*{{cite book |author1=Thomas V. Gamkrelidze|author2=Vjaceslav V. Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC |year=2010|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-081503-0}} |
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*{{cite journal| title= The Early History of Indo-European Languages| author1= Thomas V. Gamkrelidze |author2= V. V. Ivanov| journal = Scientific American| volume= 262| pages= 110–117 | number= 3| year=1990| publisher= Nature America| jstor= 24996796| doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0390-110 | bibcode= 1990SciAm.262c.110G }} |
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*{{cite book|author=Jack Goody |title=The Interface Between the Written and the Oral |url=https://archive.org/details/interfacebetween00good |url-access=registration |year=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33794-6}} |
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*{{cite book|author=Reinhold Grünendahl|title=South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints: Grantha Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Nandinagari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApAn2YZIz6wC |year=2001|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-04504-9}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Houben|first=Jan|title=Ideology and status of Sanskrit: contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language|publisher= Brill| year=1996|isbn =978-90-04-10613-0}} |
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*{{cite journal|last=Hanneder|first=J.|title=On 'The Death of Sanskrit'|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |volume=45|issue=4|year=2002|pages=293–310|doi=10.1023/a:1021366131934|s2cid=189797805}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Hock|first1=Hans Henrich|editor1-last=Kachru|editor1-first=Braj B|title=Language-death phenomena in Sanskrit: grammatical evidence for attrition in contemporary spoken Sanskrit|journal=Studies in the Linguistic Sciences|year=1983|volume=13:2}} |
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*{{cite book|author=Barbara A. Holdrege|title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlvikndgEmIC |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0695-4}} |
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*{{cite book|author=Michael C. Howard|title=Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA21|year=2012 |publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-9033-2}} |
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*{{cite book|author1=Dhanesh Jain|author2=George Cardona|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ |year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79711-9}} |
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*{{cite book |author1=Stephanie W. Jamison|author2=Joel P. Brereton|title=The Rigveda: 3-Volume Set, Volume I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972078-1}} |
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*{{cite book|author=A. Berriedale Keith| title=A history of Sanskrit literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C|year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1100-3}} |
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*{{cite book|author1=Damien Keown|author2=Charles S. Prebish|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1pcAgAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-98595-9}} |
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* {{cite book |author=Anne Kessler-Persaud|editor=Knut A. Jacobsen |display-editors=etal |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism: Sacred texts, ritual traditions, arts, concepts|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QnVQSAAACAAJ|year=2009|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-17893-9}} |
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*{{cite book|author1=Jared Klein|author2=Brian Joseph|author3=Matthias Fritz|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQA2DwAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=Walter De Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-026128-8}} |
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*{{cite journal| title= Sanskrit in Tibetan Literature| author= Dalai Lama| journal= The Tibet Journal| volume=4| pages= 3–5| number= 2| year=1979| jstor= 43299940}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Winfred Philipp Lehmann|title=Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i9Ls1Gwmx5cC |year=1996|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-13850-5}} |
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*{{cite journal|author=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |year=1995|title=Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna|journal=Numen|volume=42 |number=1|pages=21–47 |publisher=Brill Academic|jstor=3270278|doi=10.1163/1568527952598800|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf|hdl=2027.42/43799}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|title=Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. |publisher= Harvard University Press |year=2003|isbn=978-0-674-01227-1}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Malhotra|first=Rajiv|title=The Battle for Sanskrit: Is Sanskrit Political or Sacred, Oppressive or Liberating, Dead or Alive?|publisher=Harper Collins|year=2016|isbn=978-9351775386|title-link=The Battle for Sanskrit}} |
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*{{cite book |author1=J. P. Mallory|author2=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC |year=1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5}} |
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*{{cite journal | last=Mallory | first=J. P. | s2cid=197841755 | title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans / Language, Archaeology and Myth | journal=Praehistorische Zeitschrift | publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH | volume=67 | issue=1 | year=1992 | issn=1613-0804 | doi=10.1515/pz-1992-0118}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Colin P. Masica|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC |year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Michael Meier-Brügger|title=Indo-European Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC|year=2003|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-017433-5}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Michael Meier-Brügger|title=Indo-European Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt4fAAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-089514-8}} |
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*{{cite book | last=Matilal | first=Bimal | title=The word and the world : India's contribution to the study of language | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=New Delhi, India Oxford | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-19-565512-4 | oclc=59319758}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Maurer|first=Walter|title=The Sanskrit language: an introductory grammar and reader|publisher=Curzon|location=Surrey, England|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7007-1382-0}} |
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*{{cite book |author1=J. P. Mallory |author2=D. Q. Adams |title=The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNUSDAAAQBAJ |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-928791-8}} |
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*{{cite journal| title= Sanskrit| author= V. RAGHAVAN| journal= Indian Literature| volume = 8| number=2| year= 1965| pages=110–115| publisher= Sahitya Akademi| jstor= 23329146}} |
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*{{cite book|last=MacDonell |first=Arthur|title=A History Of Sanskrit Literature|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4179-0619-2}} |
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*{{cite book|author=Sir Monier Monier-Williams|title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUezTfym7CAC |year=2005|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3105-6}} |
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*{{cite book|author=Tim Murray|title=Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA115 |year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-186-1}} |
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*{{cite book|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|title=Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUE3AAAAIAAJ|year=1974|publisher=Sanskrit College}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Nedi︠a︡lkov|first=V. P.|title=Reciprocal constructions|publisher=J. Benjamins Pub. Co|location=Amsterdam Philadelphia|year=2007|isbn=978-90-272-2983-0}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Oberlies|first=Thomas|title=A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit |publisher=Walter de Gruyter|location=Berlin New York|year=2003|isbn=978-3-11-014448-2}} |
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* {{cite journal | last=Petersen | first=Walter | title=Vedic, Sanskrit, and Prakrit | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | publisher=American Oriental Society | volume=32 | issue=4 | pages=414–428 | year=1912 | issn=0003-0279 | doi=10.2307/3087594 | jstor=3087594 }} |
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*{{cite book |author=Sheldon Pollock |title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7owDwAAQBAJ |year=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26003-0}} |
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*{{cite journal|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|s2cid=35550166|title=The Death of Sanskrit|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=43|issue=2|year=2001|pages=392–426| doi=10.1017/s001041750100353x| jstor=2696659}} |
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*{{cite journal| title= Sanskrit: Flow of Studies| author= V. RAGHAVAN| journal= Indian Literature| volume = 11 | number= 4| year= 1968| pages=82–87| publisher= Sahitya Akademi| jstor= 24157111}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Colin Renfrew|title=Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R645AAAAIAAJ |year=1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-38675-3}} |
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*{{cite book |author1=Louis Renou|author2=Jagbans Kishore Balbir|title=A history of Sanskrit language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ |year=2004|publisher=Ajanta |isbn=978-8-1202-05291}} |
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*{{cite book|author=A. M. Ruppel|title=The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ |year=2017| publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=978-1-107-08828-3}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Salomon|first=Richard|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535666-3}} |
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* {{cite journal|last1=Salomon|first1=Richard|title=On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=1995|volume=115|issue=2|pages=271–279|doi=10.2307/604670|jstor=604670}} |
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* {{cite journal|last1=Salomon|first1=Richard|title=On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=1995|volume=115|issue=2|pages=271–279|doi=10.2307/604670|jstor=604670}} |
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*{{cite book |author=Malati J. Shendge|title=The Language of the Harappans: From Akkadian to Sanskrit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynEWVCLMQY4C|year=1997|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-325-0}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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== Daftar pustaka == |
== Daftar pustaka == |
Revisi per 22 November 2020 02.38
Bahasa Sanskerta (ejaan tidak baku: Sansekerta, Sangsekerta, Sanskrit,[9] aksara Dewanagari: संस्कृतम्, saṃskṛtam[10]) adalah bahasa kuno Asia Selatan yang merupakan cabang Indo-Arya dari rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa.[11][12][13] Bahasa ini berkembang di Asia Selatan setelah moyangnya mengalami difusi trans-budaya di wilayah barat laut Asia Selatan pada Zaman Perunggu.[14][15] Bahasa Sanskerta adalah bahasa suci umat Hindu, Buddha, dan Jain. Bahasa ini merupakan basantara Asia Selatan pada zaman kuno dan pertengahan, dan menjadi bahasa agama, kebudayaan, dan politik yang tersebar di sejumlah wilayah di Asia Tenggara, Timur, dan Tengah.[16][17] Bahasa ini memberikan banyak pengaruh bahasa di Asia Selatan, Tenggara, dan Timur, khususnya melalui kosakata yang dipelajari.[18]
Bahasa Sanskerta masih mempertahankan ciri-ciri bahasa Indo-Arya kuno.[19][20] Bentuk arkaisnya adalah bahasa Weda yang ditemukan dalam Regweda, kumpulan 1.028 himne yang disusun oleh masyarakat suku Indo-Arya yang bermigrasi di wilayah yang kini Afganistan hingga Pakistan dan kemudian India Utara.[21][22] Bahasa Weda ini berakulturasi dengan bahasa kuno yang telah ada di anak benua India, menyerap kosakata yang berkaitan dengan nama-nama hewan dan tumbuhan; dan tambahannya, rumpun bahasa Dravida kuno mempengaruhi fonologi dan sintaksis Sanskerta.[23] "Sanskerta" dapat juga merujuk pada bahasa Sanskerta klasik yang tata bahasanya dibakukan pada pertengahan milenium pertama SM secara sangat lengkap,[b] yang termuat dalam kitab Aṣṭādhyāyī ("Delapan Bab") karya Pāṇini.[25] Pujangga dan dramawan besar Kalidasa menulis menggunakan bahasa Sanskerta klasik, dan dasar-dasar aritmetika klasik pertama kalinya dideskripsikan dalam bahasa Sanskerta klasik.[c][26] Dua wiracarita besar Mahabharata dan Ramayana, disusun menggunakan gaya bahasa cerita lisan yang digunakan di India Utara antara 400 SM dan 300 SM, dan kira-kira sezaman dengan bahasa Sanskerta klasik.[27] Pada abad-abad berikutnya bahasa Sanskerta mulai terikat tradisi, berhenti dipelajari sebagai bahasa ibu, dan akhirnya berhenti berkembang sebagai bahasa yang hidup.[28]
Nyanyian Regweda sangat mirip dengan puisi arkais berbahasa Iran dan Yunani, Gathas dalam bahasa Avesta dan Illiad karya Homeros.[29] Karena Regweda mengalir dari mulut ke mulut dengan cara rajin menghafal,[30][31] dan dianggap sebagai sebuah teks tunggal tanpa varian apa pun,[32] Regweda melestarikan morfologi dan sintaksis yang mendorong rekonstruksi moyang dari bahasa tersebut, bahasa Proto-Indo-Eropa.[29] Bahasa Sanskerta tidak memiliki sistem tulisan yang spesifik: sekitar peralihan milenium pertama Masehi, bahasa ini ditulis dalam aksara-aksara berumpun Brahmi dan saat ini menggunakan aksara Dewanagari.[a][4][5]
Status, fungsi, dan penempatan bahasa Sanskerta sebagai warisan sejarah dan budaya India diakui dalam bahasa resmi di Jadwal Kedelapan dari Konstitusi India.[33][34] Namun, di luar kebangkitannya,[35][36] tidak ada masyarakat yang mengakui bahasa ini sebagai bahasa ibu di India.[37][36][38] Pada sensus terakhir di India, sekitar ribuan warga negara India mengakui bahasa Sanskerta sebagai bahasa ibu mereka,[d] dan angka itu dianggap menandakan harapan penyelarasan dengan prestise berbahasa.[36][40] Bahasa Sanskerta diajarkan di gurukula sejak zaman kuno; dan kini diajarkan pada sekolah menengah pertama. Sekolah modern bahasa Sanskerta tertua adalah Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, didirikan pada 1791 pada masa pemerintahan Perusahaan Hindia Timur Britania.[41] Bahasa Sanskerta menjadi bahasa liturgi bagi umat Hindu dan Buddha, digunakan untuk membacakan nyanyian dan mantra.
Etimologi dan penamaan
Dalam bahasa Sanskerta ajektiva verbal sáṃskṛta- adalah kata majemuk yang tersusun dari sam (berbudaya, bagus, baik, sempurna) dan krta- (tersusun).[42][43] Maksudnya adalah suatu bahasa yang "tersusun dengan baik, murni, sempurna, suci, dan berbudaya".[44][45][46] Menurut Biderman, kesempurnaan yang dimaksud dari etimologi tersebut cenderung memiliki kualitas tonal bukannya semantik. Tradisi lisan dianggap berharga di India Kuno, dan resi-resinya menyusun alfabet, struktur kata, dan tata bahasanya menjadi "sebuah kumpulan suara, semacam cetakan musikal yang bernilai luhur", sebagaimana yang disebut Biderman, sebagai sebuah bahasa yang disebut Sanskerta.[43] Dari akhir periode Weda, sebagaimana yang disebut Annette Wilke dan Oliver Moebus, landasan resonansi dan musikalnya membangun "literatur linguistik, filosofis, dan religius dengan jumlah yang sangat besar" di India. Suara-suara itu divisualisiasikan "meliputi seluruh ciptaan", representasi lain dari dunia itu sendiri; sebuah "magna misterius" dari pemikiran Hindu. Pencarian kesempurnaan dalam pemikiran dan tujuan kebebasan berada di antara dimensi suara sakral, benang merah itu merangkai semua ide dan inspirasi menjadi apa yang diyakini masyarakat India kuno sebagai bahasa yang sempurna, sehingga terciptalah "epistema fonosentris" bahasa Sanskerta.[47][48]
Bahasa ini dianggap sebagai lawan dari bahasa-bahasa rakyat (prākṛta-). Kata prakrta secara literal berarti "asli, alami, normal, tak berseni", menurut Franklin Southworth.[49] Keterkaitan antara bahasa Prakerta dan Sanskerta ditemukan dalam naskah India berangka milenium pertama Masehi. Patañjali mengakui bahasa Prakerta sebagai bahasa pertama, yang secara naluriah diadopsi oleh anak-anak yang berujung pada masalah interpretasi dan kesalahpahaman. Pemurnian struktur bahasa Sanskerta menghapus ketidaksempurnaan itu. Tatabahasawan Sanskerta awal Daṇḍin menyatakan, sebagai contoh, banyak kata bahasa Prakerta berasal dari Sanskerta, tetapi memunculkan "kehilangan suara" dan penyalahgunaan makna yang merupakan hasil dari "pengabaian tata bahasa". Daṇḍin mengakui ada kata-kata dan struktur membingungkan dari bahasa Prakerta yang lepas dari bahasa Sanskerta. Pandangan ini tampak pada gaya penulisan Bharata Muni yang mengarang naskah Natyasastra. Namisādhu, salah satu cendekiawan Jaina, mengakui adanya perbedaan tersebut, tetapi tidak setuju kalau bahasa Prakerta adalah hasil penyalahgunaan makna dari Sanskerta. Namisādhu menyatakan bahwa bahasa Prakerta bersifat pūrvam (alamiah) bagi anak-anak, dan Sanskerta adalah penyempurnaan bahasa Prakerta melalui sebuah "pemurnian tata bahasa".[50]
Sejarah
Bahasa Sanskerta termasuk cabang Indo-Arya dari rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa. Bersama dengan bahasa Iran, bahasa Sanskerta termasuk rumpun bahasa Indo-Iran dan dengan ini bagian dari kelompok Satem bahasa-bahasa Indo-Eropa, yang juga mencakup cabang Balto-Slavik.
Ketika istilah bahasa Sanskerta muncul di India, bahasa ini tidaklah dipandang sebagai sebuah bahasa yang berbeda dari bahasa-bahasa lainnya, namun terutama sebagai bentuk halus atau berbudaya dalam berbicara. Pengetahuan akan bahasa Sanskerta merupakan sebuah penanda kelas sosial dan bahasa ini terutama diajarkan kepada anggota kasta-kasta tinggi, melalui analisis saksama para tatabahasawan Sanskerta seperti Pāṇini. Bahasa Sanskerta sebagai bahasa terpelajar di India berada di samping bahasa-bahasa Prakreta yang merupakan bahasa rakyat dan akhirnya berkembang menjadi bahasa-bahasa Indo-Arya modern (bahasa Hindi, bahasa Assam, bahasa Urdu, Bengali dan seterusnya). Kebanyakan bahasa Dravida dari India, meski merupakan bagian rumpun bahasa yang berbeda, mereka sangat dipengaruhi bahasa Sanskerta, terutama dalam bentuk kata-kata pinjaman. Bahasa Kannada, Telugu dan Malayalam memiliki jumlah kata serapan yang terbesar sementara bahasa Tamil memiliki yang terendah. Pengaruh bahasa Sanskerta pada bahasa-bahasa ini dikenali dengan wacana Tat Sama ("sama") dan Tat Bhava ("berakar"). Sementara itu, bahasa Sanskerta sendiri juga mendapatkan pengaruh substratum bahasa Dravida sejak masa sangat awal.
Distribusi geografis
Kehadiran bahasa Sanskerta secara historis telah terbukti dalam lingkup geografi yang luas di Asia Selatan. Prasasti dan karya-karya sastra menunjukkan bahwa bahasa Sanskerta telah digunakan di Asia Tenggara dan Tengah pada milenium pertama SM, melalui para brahmana, peziarah, dan pedagang.[51][52][53]
Asia Selatan merupakan daerah yang kaya akan manuskrip dan prasasti berbahasa Sanskerta pada zaman kuno hingga sebelum abad ke-18.[54] Di luar wilayah India Kuno, manuskrip dan prasasti berbahasa Sanskerta telah ditemukan di Tiongkok (terutama di Tibet),[55][56] Myanmar,[57] Indonesia,[58] Kamboja,[59] Laos,[60] Vietnam,[61] Thailand,[62] dan Malaysia.[60] Prasati dan manuskrip Sanskerta, maupun pecahan-pecahannya, termasuk sejumlah teks tertulis berbahasa Sanskerta tertua yang diketahui, telah ditemukan di gurun-gurun kering dan pegunungan seperti di Nepal,[63][64][e] Tibet,[56][65] Afganistan,[66][67] Mongolia,[68] Uzbekistan,[69] Turkmenistan, Tajikistan,[69] dan Kazakhstan.[70] Sejumlah teks berbahasa Sanskerta juga ditemukan di kuil-kuil Jepang dan Korea.[71][72][73]
Status resmi
Di India, bahasa Sanskerta diakui sebagai 22 bahasa resmi yang ada dalam Jadwal Kedelapan Konstitusi India.[74] Pada 2010, Uttarakhand menjadi negara bagian India pertama yang menetapkan bahasa Sanskerta sebagai bahasa resmi kedua.[75] Selanjutnya sejak 2019, Himachal Pradesh menjadi negara bagian kedua yang menetapkan bahasa tersebut sebagai bahasa resmi kedua.[76]
Bahasa Weda
Bahasa Sanskerta Weda atau disingkat sebagai bahasa Weda adalah bahasa yang dipergunakan di dalam kitab suci Weda, teks-teks suci awal dari India. Teks Weda yang paling awal yaitu Ṛgweda, diperkirakan ditulis pada milennium ke-2 SM, dan penggunaan bahasa Weda dilaksanakan sampai kurang lebih tahun 500 SM, ketika bahasa Sanskerta Klasik yang dikodifikasikan Panini mulai muncul.
Bentuk Weda dari bahasa Sanskerta adalah sebuah turunan dekat bahasa Proto-Indo-Iran, dan masih lumayan mirip (dengan selisih kurang lebih 1.500 tahun) dari bahasa Proto-Indo-Eropa, bentuk bahasa yang direkonstruksi dari semua bahasa Indo-Eropa. Bahasa Weda adalah bahasa tertua yang masih diketemukan dari cabang bahasa Indo-Iran dari rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa. Bahasa ini masih sangat dekat dengan bahasa Avesta, bahasa suci agama Zoroastrianisme. Kekerabatan antara bahasa Sanskerta dengan bahasa-bahasa yang lebih mutakhir dari Eropa seperti bahasa Yunani, bahasa Latin dan bahasa Inggris bisa dilihat dalam kata-kata berikut: Ing. mother /Skt. मतृ matṛ atau Ing. father /Skt. पितृ pitṛ.
Penelitian oleh bangsa Eropa
Penelitian bahasa Sanskerta oleh bangsa Eropa dimulai oleh Heinrich Roth (1620–1668) dan Johann Ernst Hanxleden (1681–1731), dan dilanjutkan dengan proposal rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa oleh Sir William Jones. Hal ini memainkan peranan penting pada perkembangan ilmu perbandingan bahasa di Dunia Barat.
Sir William Jones, pada kesempatan berceramah kepada Asiatick Society of Bengal di Calcutta, 2 Februari 1786, berkata:
“ | "Bahasa Sanskerta, bagaimanapun kekunoannya, memiliki struktur yang menakjubkan; lebih sempurna daripada bahasa Yunani, lebih luas daripada bahasa Latin dan lebih halus dan berbudaya daripada keduanya, tetapi memiliki keterkaitan yang lebih erat pada keduanya, baik dalam bentuk akar kata-kata kerja maupun bentuk tata bahasa, yang tak mungkin terjadi hanya secara kebetulan; sangat eratlah keterkaitan ini sehingga tak ada seorang ahli bahasa yang bisa meneliti ketiganya, tanpa percaya bahwa mereka muncul dari sumber yang sama, yang kemungkinan sudah tidak ada." | ” |
Memang ilmu linguistik (bersama dengan fonologi, dsb.) pertama kali muncul di antara para tata bahasawan India kuno yang berusaha menetapkan hukum-hukum bahasa Sanskerta. Ilmu linguistik modern banyak berhutang kepada mereka dan saat ini banyak istilah-istilah kunci seperti bahuvrihi dan suarabakti diambil dari bahasa Sanskerta.
Beberapa ciri-ciri
Kasus
Salah satu ciri-ciri utama bahasa Sanskerta ialah adanya kasus dalam bahasa ini, yang berjumlah 8. Dalam bahasa Latin yang masih serumpun hanya ada 5 kasus. Selain itu ada tiga jenis kelamin dalam bahasa Sanskerta, maskulin, feminin dan netral dan tiga modus jumlah, singular, dualis dan jamak:
- kasus nominatif
- kasus vokatif
- kasus akusatif
- kasus instrumentalis
- kasus datif
- kasus ablatif
- kasus genetif
- kasus lokatif
Di bawah ini disajikan sebuah contoh semua kasus sebuah kata maskulin singular deva (Dewa, Tuhan atau Raja).
Singular:
- nom. devas arti: "Dewa"
- vok. (he) deva arti: "Wahai Dewa"
- ak. devam arti: "ke Dewa" dsb.
- inst. devena arti: "dengan Dewa" dsb.
- dat. devāya arti: "kepada Dewa"
- ab. devāt arti: "dari Dewa"
- gen. devasya arti: "milik Dewa"
- lok. deve arti: "di Dewa"
Dualis:
- nva devau
- ida devābhyām
- gl devayos
Jamak:
- nv devās
- a devān
- i devais
- da devebhyas
- g devānām
- l deveṣu
Lalu di bawah ini disajikan dalam bentuk tabel.
Skema dasar tasrifan (deklensi) sufiks untuk kata-kata benda dan sifat
Skema dasar tasrifan bahasa Sanskerta untuk kata-kata benda dan sifat disajikan di bawah ini. Skema ini berlaku untuk sebagian besar kata-kata.
Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominatif | -s (-m) |
-au (-ī) |
-as (-i) |
Akusatif | -am (-m) |
-au (-ī) |
-as (-i) |
Instrumentalis | -ā | -bhyām | -bhis |
Datif | -e | -bhyām | -bhyas |
Ablatif | -as | -bhyām | -bhyas |
Genitif | -as | -os | -ām |
Lokatif | -i | -os | -su |
Vokatif | -s (-) |
-au ( -ī) |
-as (-i) |
Pokok-a
Pokok-a (/ə/ or /ɑː/) mencakup kelas akhiran kata benda yang terbesar. Biasanya kata-kata yang berakhir dengan -a pendek berkelamin maskulin atau netral. Kata-kata benda yang berakhirkan -a panjang (/ɑː/) hampir selalu feminin. Kelas ini sangatlah besar karena juga mencakup akhiran -o dari bahasa proto-Indo-Eropa.
Maskulin (kā́ma- 'cinta') | Netral (āsya- 'mulut') | Feminin (kānta- 'tersayang') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | |
Nominatif | kā́mas | kā́māu | kā́mās | āsyàm | āsyè | āsyā̀ni | kāntā | kānte | kāntās |
Akusatif | kā́mam | kā́māu | kā́mān | āsyàm | āsyè | āsyā̀ni | kāntām | kānte | kāntās |
Instrumentalis | kā́mena | kā́mābhyām | kā́māis | āsyèna | āsyā̀bhyām | āsyāìs | kāntayā | kāntābhyām | kāntābhis |
Datif | kā́māya | kā́mābhyām | kā́mebhyas | āsyā̀ya | āsyā̀bhyām | āsyèbhyas | kāntāyai | kāntābhyām | kāntābhyās |
Ablatif | kā́māt | kā́mābhyām | kā́mebhyas | āsyā̀t | āsyā̀bhyām | āsyèbhyas | kāntāyās | kāntābhyām | kāntābhyās |
Genitif | kā́masya | kā́mayos | kā́mānām | āsyàsya | āsyàyos | āsyā̀nām | kāntāyās | kāntayos | kāntānām |
Lokatif | kā́me | kā́mayos | kā́meṣu | āsyè | āsyàyos | āsyèṣu | kāntāyām | kāntayos | kāntāsu |
Vokatif | kā́ma | kā́mau | kā́mās | ā́sya | āsyè | āsyā̀ni | kānte | kānte | kāntās |
Pokok -i dan -u
Mas. dan Fem. (gáti- 'kepergian') | Netral (vā́ri- 'air') | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | |
Nominatif | gátis | gátī | gátayas | vā́ri | vā́riṇī | vā́rīṇi |
Akusatif | gátim | gátī | gátīs | vā́ri | vā́riṇī | vā́rīṇi |
Instrumentalis | gátyā | gátibhyām | gátibhis | vā́riṇā | vā́ribhyām | vā́ribhis |
Datif | gátaye, gátyāi | gátibhyām | gátibhyas | vā́riṇe | vā́ribhyām | vā́ribhyas |
Ablatif | gátes, gátyās | gátibhyām | gátibhyas | vā́riṇas | vā́ribhyām | vā́ribhyas |
Genitif | gátes, gátyās | gátyos | gátīnām | vā́riṇas | vā́riṇos | vā́riṇām |
Lokatif | gátāu, gátyām | gátyos | gátiṣu | vā́riṇi | vā́riṇos | vā́riṣu |
Vokatif | gáte | gátī | gátayas | vā́ri, vā́re | vā́riṇī | vā́rīṇi |
Mas. dan Fem. (śátru- 'seteru, musuh') | Netral (mádhu- 'madu') | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | |
Nominatif | śátrus | śátrū | śátravas | mádhu | mádhunī | mádhūni |
Akusatif | śátrum | śátrū | śátrūn | mádhu | mádhunī | mádhūni |
Instrumentalis | śátruṇā | śátrubhyām | śátrubhis | mádhunā | mádhubhyām | mádhubhis |
Datif | śátrave | śátrubhyām | śátrubhyas | mádhune | mádhubhyām | mádhubhyas |
Ablatif | śátros | śátrubhyām | śátrubhyas | mádhunas | mádhubhyām | mádhubhyas |
Genitif | śátros | śátrvos | śátrūṇām | mádhunas | mádhunos | mádhūnām |
Lokatif | śátrāu | śátrvos | śátruṣu | mádhuni | mádhunos | mádhuṣu |
Vokatif | śátro | śátrū | śátravas | mádhu | mádhunī | mádhūni |
Pokok vokal panjang
Pokok ā (jā- 'kepandaian') | Pokok ī (dhī- 'pikiran') | Pokok ū (bhū- 'bumi') | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | Tunggal | Dualis | Jamak | |
Nominatif | jā́s | jāú | jā́s | dhī́s | dhíyāu | dhíyas | bhū́s | bhúvāu | bhúvas |
Akusatif | jā́m | jāú | jā́s, jás | dhíyam | dhíyāu | dhíyas | bhúvam | bhúvāu | bhúvas |
Instrumentalis | jā́ | jā́bhyām | jā́bhis | dhiyā́ | dhībhyā́m | dhībhís | bhuvā́ | bhūbhyā́m | bhūbhís |
Datif | jé | jā́bhyām | jā́bhyas | dhiyé, dhiyāí | dhībhyā́m | dhībhyás | bhuvé, bhuvāí | bhūbhyā́m | bhūbhyás |
Ablatif | jás | jā́bhyām | jā́bhyas | dhiyás, dhiyā́s | dhībhyā́m | dhībhyás | bhuvás, bhuvā́s | bhūbhyā́m | bhūbhyás |
Genitif | jás | jós | jā́nām, jā́m | dhiyás, dhiyā́s | dhiyós | dhiyā́m, dhīnā́m | bhuvás, bhuvā́s | bhuvós | bhuvā́m, bhūnā́m |
Lokatif | jí | jós | jā́su | dhiyí, dhiyā́m | dhiyós | dhīṣú | bhuví, bhuvā́m | bhuvós | bhūṣú |
Vokatif | jā́s | jāú | jā́s | dhī́s | dhiyāu | dhíyas | bhū́s | bhuvāu | bhúvas |
Hukum sandhi
Selain itu dalam bahasa Sanskerta didapatkan apa yang disebut hukum sandhi, sebuah fenomena fonetik di mana dua bunyi berbeda yang berdekatan bisa berasimilasi.
Pembentukan kata majemuk
Kata-kata majemuk dalam bahasa Sanskerta sangat banyak digunakan, terutama menyangkut kata-kata benda. Kata-kata ini bisa menjadi sangat panjang (lebih dari 10 kata). Nominal majemuk terjadi dengan beberapa bentuk, tetapi secara morfologis mereka sejatinya sama. Setiap kata benda (atau kata sifat) terdapat dalam bentuk akarnya (bentuk lemah), dengan unsur terakhir saja yang ditasrifkan sesuai kasusnya. Beberapa contoh kata benda atau nominal majemuk termasuk kategori-kategori yang diperikan di bawah ini.
- Avyayibhāva
- Tatpuruṣa
- Karmadhāraya
- Dvigu
- Dvandva
- Bahuvrīhi
Bahasa Sanskerta di Indonesia
Bahasa Sanskerta telah lama hadir di Nusantara sejak ribuan tahun lalu, bahkan banyak nama orang Indonesia yang menggunakan nama-nama India atau Hindu (Sanskerta), meskipun tidak berarti bahwa mereka beragama Hindu. Ini karena pengaruh budaya India yang datang ke Nusantara sejak ribuan tahun yang lalu selama pengindiaan kerajaan-kerajaan Asia Tenggara (Hindu-Buddha), dan sejak itu, budaya India ini dilihat sebagai bagian dari budaya Indonesia, terutama dalam budaya Jawa, Bali, dan beberapa bagian dari Nusantara lainya. Dengan demikian, budaya Hindu atau India yang terkait di Indonesia hadir tidak hanya sebagai bagian dari agama, tetapi juga budaya. Akibatnya, adalah umum untuk menemukan orang-orang Indonesia muslim atau Kristen dengan nama-nama yang bernuansa India atau Sanskerta. Tidak seperti nama-nama yang berasal dari bahasa Sanskerta dalam bahasa Thai dan Khmer, pengucapan nama-nama Sanskerta dalam bahasa Jawa atau Indonesia mirip dengan pelafalan India asli, kecuali bahwa "v" diubah menjadi "w", contoh: "Vishnu" di India berubah menjadi "Wisnu" jika di Indonesia.
Di kawasan Nusantara khususnya di Indonesia, Bahasa Sanskerta sangat berpengaruh penting dan sangat memiliki peran tinggi di dalam perbahasaan di Indonesia. Bahasa Sanskerta yang masuk ke Indonesia sejak ribuan tahun lalu (masa kerajaan Hindu-Buddha) datang dari India ke Indonesia melalui para kerajaan-kerajaan Hindu-Buddha pada masa kuno ribuan tahun yang lalu di bumi Nusantara. Sangat banyak kata-kata dalam Bahasa Indonesia yang diserap dari Bahasa Sanskerta, contohnya dari kata "bahasa" भाषा (bhāṣa) itu sendiri berasal dari bahasa sanskerta berarti: "logat bicara". Bahkan, banyak nama-nama lembaga, istilah, moto, dan semboyan di pemerintahan Indonesia menggunakan bahasa Sanskerta, seperti pangkat jenderal di Angkatan Laut Indonesia (TNI AL), menggunakan kata "Laksamana" (dari tokoh Ramayana yang merupakan adik dari Rama). "Penghargaan Adipura" yang merupakan penghargaan yang diberikan kepada kota-kota di seluruh Indonesia dari pemerintah pusat untuk kebersihan dan pengelolaan lingkungan juga menggunakan bahasa Sanskerta yaitu dari kata Adi (yang berarti "panutan") dan Pura (yang berarti "kota), menjadikan arti: "Kota Panutan" atau "kota yang layak menjadi contoh". Ada juga banyak moto lembaga-lembaga Indonesia yang menggunakan bahasa Sanskerta, seperti moto Akademi Militer Indonesia yang berbunyi "Adhitakarya Mahatvavirya Nagarabhakti" (अधिकाऱ्या महत्व विर्य नगरभक्ति), dan beberapa istilah-istilah lain dalam TNI juga menggunakan bahasa Sanskerta, contoh: "Adhi Makayasa", "Chandradimuka", "Tri Dharma Eka Karma", dll.
Bahasa Sanskerta dalam beberapa aksara
Lihat pula
- Bahasa Weda
- Romanisasi bahasa Sanskerta
- Kata-kata serapan dari bahasa Sanskerta dalam bahasa Melayu dan bahasa Indonesia Modern
- Daftar kata serapan dari bahasa Sanskerta dalam bahasa Indonesia
- Daftar nama yang mengandung unsur Sanskerta
Referensi
- ^ Uta Reinöhl (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. hlm. xiv, 1–16. ISBN 978-0-19-873666-0.
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20090411183701/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement5.htm.
- ^ http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf.
- ^ a b Jain, Dhanesh (2007). "Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages". Dalam George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. hlm. 47–66, 51. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
In the history of Indo-Aryan, writing was a later development and its adoption has been slow even in modern times. The first written word comes to us through Asokan inscriptions dating back to the third century BC. Originally, Brahmi was used to write Prakrit (MIA); for Sanskrit (OIA) it was used only four centuries later (Masica 1991: 135). The MIA traditions of Buddhist and Jain texts show greater regard for the written word than the OIA Brahminical tradition, though writing was available to Old Indo-Aryans.
- ^ a b Salomon, Richard (2007). "The Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages". Dalam George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. hlm. 67–102. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
Although in modern usage Sanskrit is most commonly written or printed in Nagari, in theory, it can be represented by virtually any of the main Brahmi-based scripts, and in practice it often is. Thus scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla, and Oriya, as well as the major south Indian scripts, traditionally have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit. Sanskrit, in other words, is not inherently linked to any particular script, although it does have a special historical connection with Nagari.
- ^ "UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger" (dalam bahasa bahasa Inggris, Prancis, Spanyol, Rusia, and Tionghoa). UNESCO. 2011. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 29 April 2022. Diakses tanggal 26 Juni 2011.
- ^ "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger" (PDF) (dalam bahasa Inggris). UNESCO. 2010. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 31 Mei 2022. Diakses tanggal 31 Mei 2022.
- ^ "Bahasa Sanskerta". www.ethnologue.com (dalam bahasa Inggris). SIL Ethnologue.
- ^ Sanskerta di Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia
- ^ Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1957). Revised and enlarged edition of Prin. V.S. Apte's The practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Poona: Prasad Prakashan. hlm. 1596.
from संस्कृत saṃskṛitə past passive participle: Made perfect, refined, polished, cultivated. -तः -tah A word formed regularly according to the rules of grammar, a regular derivative. -तम् -tam Refined or highly polished speech, the Sanskṛit language; संस्कृतं नाम दैवी वागन्वाख्याता महर्षिभिः ("named sanskritam the divine language elaborated by the sages") from Kāvyadarśa.1. 33. of Daṇḍin
- ^ Roger D. Woodard (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1.
The earliest form of this 'oldest' language, Sanskrit, is the one found in the ancient Brahmanic text called the Rigveda, composed c. 1500 BC. The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family – the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek – and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family – Proto-Indo-European.
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- ^ Dyson, Tim (2018). A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. hlm. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8.
Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family.
- ^ Pinkney, Andrea Marion (2014). "Revealing the Vedas in 'Hinduism': Foundations and issues of interpretation of religions in South Asian Hindu traditions". Dalam Bryan S. Turner; Oscar Salemink. Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia. Routledge. hlm. 38–. ISBN 978-1-317-63646-5.
According to Asko Parpola, the Proto-Indo-Aryan civilization was influenced by two external waves of migrations. The first group originated from the southern Urals (c. 2100 BCE) and mixed with the peoples of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC); this group then proceeded to South Asia, arriving around 1900 BCE. The second wave arrived in northern South Asia around 1750 BCE and mixed with the formerly arrived group, producing the Mitanni Aryans (c. 1500 BCE), a precursor to the peoples of the Ṛgveda. Michael Witzel has assigned an approximate chronology to the strata of Vedic languages, arguing that the language of the Ṛgveda changed through the beginning of the Iron Age in South Asia, which started in the Northwest (Punjab) around 1000 BCE. On the basis of comparative philological evidence, Witzel has suggested a five-stage periodization of Vedic civilization, beginning with the Ṛgveda. On the basis of internal evidence, the Ṛgveda is dated as a late Bronze Age text composed by pastoral migrants with limited settlements, probably between 1350 and 1150 BCE in the Punjab region.
- ^ Michael C. Howard 2012, hlm. 21
- ^ Pollock, Sheldon (2006). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. hlm. 14. ISBN 978-0-520-24500-6.
Once Sanskrit emerged from the sacerdotal environment ... it became the sole medium by which ruling elites expressed their power ... Sanskrit probably never functioned as an everyday medium of communication anywhere in the cosmopolis—not in South Asia itself, let alone Southeast Asia ... The work Sanskrit did do ... was directed above all toward articulating a form of ... politics ... as celebration of aesthetic power.
- ^ Burrow (1973), hlm. 62–64.
- ^ Cardona, George; Luraghi, Silvia (2018). "Sanskrit". Dalam Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. Taylor & Francis. hlm. 497–. ISBN 978-1-317-29049-0.
Sanskrit (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') refers to several varieties of Old Indo-Aryan whose most archaic forms are found in Vedic texts: the Rigveda (Ṛgveda), Yajurveda, Sāmveda, Atharvaveda, with various branches.
- ^ Alfred C. Woolner (1986). Introduction to Prakrit. Motilal Banarsidass. hlm. 3–4. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9.
If in 'Sanskrit' we include the Vedic language and all dialects of the Old Indian period, then it is true to say that all the Prakrits are derived from Sanskrit. If on the other hand 'Sanskrit' is used more strictly of the Panini-Patanjali language or 'Classical Sanskrit,' then it is untrue to say that any Prakrit is derived from Sanskrit, except that Sauraseni, the Midland Prakrit, is derived from the Old Indian dialect of the Madhyadesa on which Classical Sanskrit was mainly based.
- ^ Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms. Oxford University Press. hlm. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3.
It consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India.
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The Vedas were composed (roughly between 1500-1200 and 500 BCE) in parts of present-day Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and northern India. The oldest text at our disposal is the Rgveda (RV); it is composed in archaic Indo-Aryan (Vedic Sanskrit).
- ^ Shulman, David (2016). Tamil. Harvard University Press. hlm. 17–19. ISBN 978-0-674-97465-4.
(p. 17) Similarly, we find a large number of other items relating to flora and fauna, grains, pulses, and spices—that is, words that we might expect to have made their way into Sanskrit from the linguistic environment of prehistoric or early-historic India. ... (p. 18) Dravidian certainly influenced Sanskrit phonology and syntax from early on ... (p 19) Vedic Sanskrit was in contact, from very ancient times, with speakers of Dravidian languages, and that the two language families profoundly influenced one another.
- ^ a b Evans, Nicholas (2009). Dying Words: Endangered languages and what they have to tell us. John Wiley & Sons. hlm. 27–. ISBN 978-0-631-23305-3.
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The story of the growth of arithmetic from the ancient inheritance to the wealth passed on to the Renaissance is dramatic and passes through several cultures. The most groundbreaking achievement was the evolution of a positional number system, in which the position of a digit within a number determines its value according to powers (usually) of ten (e.g., in 3,285, the "2" refers to hundreds). Its extension to include decimal fractions and the procedures that were made possible by its adoption transformed the abilities of all who calculated, with an effect comparable to the modern invention of the electronic computer. Roughly speaking, this began in India, was transmitted to Islam, and then to the Latin West.
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The term ‘Epic Sanskrit’ refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.
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The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Astadhyayi, attributed to the grammarian Panini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition.
- ^ a b Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms. Oxford University Press. hlm. 2–. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3.
The importance of the Rigveda for the study of early Indo-Aryan historical linguistics cannot be underestimated. ... its language is ... notably similar in many respects to the most archaic poetic texts of related language families, the Old Avestan Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, respectively the earliest poetic representatives of the Iranian and Greek language families. Moreover, its manner of preservation, by a system of oral transmission which has preserved the hymns almost without change for 3,000 years, makes it a very trustworthy witness to the Indo-Aryan language of North India in the second millennium BC. Its importance for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European, particularly in respect of the archaic morphology and syntax it preserves, ... is considerable. Any linguistic investigation into Old Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, or Proto-Indo-European cannot avoid treating the evidence of the Rigveda as of vital importance.
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The Eighth Schedule recognizes India's national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India's cultural heritage. ... The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty-two.
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As Mahapatra says: “It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment” ... Being recognized in the Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions.
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Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. “This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate,” says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people “fictitiously” indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... “Sanskrit has influence without presence,” says Devy. “We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken.” But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue.
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Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants’ languages.
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