Lihat sumber Sejarah Roma

{{Quote box
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| title = Negara-negara bersejarah
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| quote = {{ubl|[[Kerajaan Romawi]] 753–509 SM|
[[Republik Romawi]] 509–27 SM|
[[Kekaisaran Romawi]] 27 SM – 395 M|
[[Kekaisaran Romawi Barat]] 286–476|
[[Odoaker#Sejarah|Kerajaan Italia]] 476–493|
[[Kerajaan Ostrogoth|Kerajaan bangsa Ostrogoth]] 493–536|
{{Flagicon image|Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century, square.svg}} [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]] 536–546|
[[Kerajaan Ostrogoth|Kerajaan bangsa Ostrogoth]] 546–547|
{{Flagicon image|Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century, square.svg}} [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]] 547–549|
[[Kerajaan Ostrogoth|Kerajaan bangsa Ostrogoth]] 549–552|
{{Flagicon image|Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century, square.svg}} [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]] 552–751|
[[Kerajaan Langobardi|Kerajaan bangsa Lombardi]] 751–756|
{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Papal States (pre 1808).svg}} [[Negara Gereja]] 756–1798|
{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Repubblica Romana (1798).svg}} [[Republik Roma (abad ke-18)|Republik Roma]] 1798–1799|
{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Papal States (1803-1825).svg}} [[Negara Gereja]] 1799–1809|
{{Flag|Kekaisaran Prancis Pertama}} 1809–1814|
{{Flag|Negara Gereja}} 1814–1849|
{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Roman Republic (19th century).svg}} [[Republik Roma (abad ke-19)|Republik Roma]] 1849|
{{Flag|Negara Gereja}} 1849–1870|
{{Flag|Kerajaan Italia}} 1870–1943|
{{Flag|Republik Sosial Italia}} 1943–1944|
{{Flag|Kerajaan Italia}} 1944–1946|
{{Flagicon image|Flag of Italy.svg}} [[Republik Italia]] 1946–sekarang
}}
}}
[[File:Rome- Ruins of the Forum, Looking towards the Capitol.jpg|thumb|right|''Roma: Puing-Puing Forum, Di Tentangan Kapitol'', lukisan karya [[Canaletto]] (tahun 1742)]]
'''Sejarah Roma''' melingkupi sejarah [[Roma|kota Roma]] maupun sejarah [[Romawi Kuno|peradaban bangsa Romawi Kuno]]. Sejarah bangsa Romawi telah memengaruhi dunia modern, teristimewa dalam perjalanan [[sejarah Gereja Katolik]], sementara [[hukum Romawi|tatanan hukum bangsa Romawi]] telah memengaruhi banyak [[Daftar negara menurut sistem hukum|tatanan hukum]] modern. Sejarah bangsa Romawi dapat dibagi menjadi beberapa babak sebagai berikut:

*Babak prasejarah dan sejarah-perdana, mencakup sejarah masyarakat yang mula-mula bermukim di lingkungan kota Roma dan legenda pendirian kota Roma oleh [[Romulus dan Remus|Romulus]].
*Babak [[Bangsa Etruria|daulat Etruski]] dan [[Kerajaan Romawi|daulat raja-raja]], mencakup anggapan turun-temurun yang mengatakan bahwa Romulus adalah raja pertama dari ketujuh raja yang silih berganti memerintah negara kota Roma.
*Babak [[Republik Romawi|republik]], bermula pada tahun 509 SM, ketika pemerintahan raja-raja diganti dengan pemerintahan yang diselenggarakan oleh para magistratus pilihan rakyat. Babak ini ditengarai oleh perluasan wilayah kedaulatan negara kota Roma secara besar-besaran. Pada abad ke-5 SM, negara kota Roma berdaulat atas daerah [[Latium]]. Sesudah memenangkan perang-[[perang Punik]] yang berlangsung dari tahun 264 sampai 146 SM, negara kota Roma menggeser posisi [[Kartago]] sebagai negara adidaya yang berdaulat atas bagian barat [[Laut Tengah|Kawasan Laut Tengah]].
*Babak [[Kekaisaran Romawi|kekaisaran]] menyusuli babak republik, yang mulai mendekati akhirnya ketika [[Yulius Kaisar]] berkuasa, dan benar-benar berakhir sesudah [[Augustus|Oktavianus]], anak angkat Yulius Kaisar, mengalahkan [[Markus Antonius]] dalam [[Perang Akhir Republik Romawi|perang saudara]] pada tahun 27 SM. 
*Babak [[Keruntuhan Kekaisaran Romawi Barat|keruntuhan Kekaisaran Romawi Barat]], bermula dari jatuhnya kota Roma jatuh ke tangan bangsa Ostrogoth pada tahun 476 M. Kekuatannya pudar, dan akhirnya menjadi bagian dari wilayah kedaulatan [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]] dengan status [[Kadipaten Roma|Praja Kadipaten Roma]] dari abad ke-6 sampai abad ke-8. Pada kurun waktu ini, luas kota Roma menyusut sampai tinggal sekerat saja dari luasnya yang semula, akibat berulang kali diserbu dan dijarah pada abad ke-5 dan ke-6, bahkan sempat tidak berpenghuni sama sekali.<ref>Prokopius, Perang Goth, III.xxii. "Di Roma, tidak ia sisakan seorang pun, kota itu ditelantarkan sama sekali, semua bagiannya, terbengkalai sepenuhnya."</ref>
*Babak [[Sejarah Roma#Roma pada Abad Pertengah|Abad Pertengahan]], ditengarai oleh keretakan hubungan dengan Konstantinopel dan pembentukan [[Negara Gereja]]. Lembaga [[kepausan]] berjuang mempertahankan kewibawaannya manakala [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] mulai kukuh bertapak, dan populasi kota Roma merosot sampai tersisa 30.000 jiwa saja pada masa ''[[saeculum obscurum]]''. Pamor lembaga kepausan kembali terangkat pada [[Puncak Abad Pertengahan]] sesudah [[Skisma Timur–Barat|Skisma Akbar]] dan [[Kontroversi Penobatan|Sengketa Investitur]], tetapi kota Roma terdepak dari pentas dunia dan populasinya merosot sampai kurang dari 20.000 jiwa ketika [[Kepausan Avignon|lembaga kepausan hijrah ke Avignon]] dan [[Skisma Barat|skisma menggerogoti kesatuan Gereja Barat]]. Ketersingkiran kota Roma dari pentas dunia pada Abad Pertengahan, yang ditengarai oleh ketiadaan kegiatan pembangunan, justu berdampak positif terhadap kelestarian sisa-sisa berbagai [[Daftar monumen kuno di Roma|petilasan penting dari zaman Romawi Kuno]] di kawasan pusat kota itu. Beberapa petilasan memang ditelantarkan, tetapi selebihnya terus dimanfaatkan.
*Babak [[Renaisans Roma|Renaisans]], berlangsung pada abad ke-15, tatkala Roma menggeser posisi [[Firenze]] sebagai kiblat kesenian dan kebudayaan. Babak ini mendadak berakhir ketika [[Jatuhnya Roma (1527)|kota Roma dijarah habis-habisan pada tahun 1527]]. Meskipun demikian, lembaga kepausan kembali tampil mengemuka lewat ikhtiar [[Kontra Reformasi]], dan kota Roma terus tumbuh berkembang sampai memasuki [[awal zaman modern]]. Roma [[Kampanye Italia pada Peperangan Revolusioner Prancis|dianeksasi Napoleon]] dan menjadi bagian dari wilayah kedaulatan [[Kekaisaran Prancis Pertama]] dari tahun 1798 sampai 1814.
*Babak modern, bermula dari abad ke-19 sampai sekarang. Roma kembali terkepung ketika [[Invasi Sekutu ke Italia|tentara Sekutu menginvasi Italia]], beberapa kali [[Pengeboman Roma pada Perang Dunia II|dibombardir]], dan dinyatakan sebagai [[kota terbuka]] pada tanggal 14 Agustus 1943. Roma menjadi ibu kota negara [[Sejarah Republik Italia|Republik Italia]] yang didirikan pada tahun 1946. Dengan populasi seramai 4,4 juta jiwa (per tahun 2015; 2,9 juta jiwa berdiam di dalam lingkup wilayah kota), Roma merupakan [[Daftar kota di Italia|kota terbesar di Italia]]. Roma terbilang sebagai salah satu [[Daftar kawasan perkotaan di Uni Eropa|kawasan perkotaan terbesar di Uni Eropa]] dan salah satu [[kota global|kota dunia]].

== Nama ==
Asal-usul kebahasaan dari nama Roma sudah sering diteliti. Menurut salah satu pendapat, nama Roma terambil dari [[bahasa Yunani Kuno|kata Yunani]] ''Rṓmē'' (''Ῥώμη''), artinya "keberanian" atau "ketabahan",<ref>Bdk. [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] di dalam bukunya, "[[Kontrak Sosial]]", Jilid IV, Bab IV, ditulis pada tahun 1762, menerangkan pada bagian catatan kaki bahwa kata Roma berasal dari bahasa Yunani dan berarti daya. "''Ada penulis-penulis yang mengatakan bahwa nama 'Roma' berasal dari 'Romulus'. Sebenarnya nama itu adalah kata Yunani yang berarti daya.''"</ref> mungkin sekali berasal dari akar kata ''*rum-'', artinya "puting", yang diteorikan merujuk kepada totem serigala yang mengadopsi dan menyusui bayi kembar manusia, bahkan nama si kembar pun masih mirip-mirip dengan akar kata tersebut. Agaknya nama Etruski kota ini adalah ''Ruma''.<ref>Pendapat ini disimpulkan dari kalimat Etruski yang tertulis pada lukisan sosok manusia di situs [[Makan François]] di Vulci, yaitu ''Cneve Tarchunies Rumach'', yang ditafsirkan berarti "Gnaeus Tarkuinius orang Roma". http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/francois.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422201356/http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/francois.html |date=22 April 2009 }}</ref> Bandingan juga dengan kata ''Rumon'', nama lama Sungai Tiber. Etimologi lebih lanjut dari nama Roma masih belum jelas, sama seperti kebanyakan kata Etruski. [[Thomas George Tucker|Thomas G. Tucker]] di dalam bukunya, ''Concise Etymological Dictionary of Latin'' (terbit tahun 1931), berpendapat bahwa nama itu mungkin sekali berasal dari kata ''*urobsma'' (bdk. ''urbs'', ''robur'') dan bisa juga dari kata-kata lain, "tetapi kecil kemungkinannya" berasal dari kata ''*urosma'' yang berarti "bukit" (bdk. kata Sangsekerta ''warsman-'' yang berarti "tinggi, ujung," kata Slavonika Lama врьхъ yang berarti "kemuncak, mercu", kata Rusia верх yang berarti "bagian atas, ke atas", kata Lituania ''virsus'' yang berarti "sebelah atas").

== Linimasa Roma Kuno ==
{{main|Romawi Kuno}}

{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; width:300px; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:White; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Linimasa Roma</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"|Kerajaan Romawi dan Republik Romawi
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|753 SM
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Menurut legenda, [[Romulus dan Remus|Romulus]] [[pendirian kota Roma|mendirikan kota Roma]].
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|753–509 SM
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Pemerintahan ketujuh [[Kerajaan Romawi|Raja Roma]].
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|509 SM
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Pembentukan negara [[Republik Romawi|Republik Roma]].
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|390 SM
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[suku Galia|Bangsa Galia]] menyerbu Roma. Kota Roma dijarah habis-habisan.
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|264–146 SM
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Perang-[[perang Punik]].
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|146–44 SM
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Perang Mitra dan Perang Saudara. [[Gaius Marius|Marius]], [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sula]], [[Pompeius|Pompeyus]], dan [[Yulius Kaisar]] tampil mengemuka.
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|44 SM
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Yulius Kaisar tewas terbunuh.
|}

=== Sejarah perdana ===
{{Further|Pendirian kota Roma}}

==== Prasejarah ====
Berdasarkan bukti arkeologis, lingkungan kota Roma diperkirakan sudah didiami manusia selambat-lambatnya sejak 5.000 tahun silam, tetapi lapisan padat puing-puing yang jauh lebih muda umurnya mengaburkan keberadaan situs-situs zaman Batu Tua dan Batu Muda.<ref>Heiken, G., Funiciello, R. dan De Rita, D. (2005), The Seven Hills of Rome: A Geological Tour of the Eternal City. Penerbit Universitas Princeton.</ref> Bukti arkeologis tersebut mengisyaratkan bahwa cikal bakal terbentuknya kota Roma pada masa purba juga sudah dikaburkan oleh legenda pendirian kota Roma yang menampilkan tokoh [[Romulus dan Remus]].

Menurut tradisi, kota Roma didirikan pada tanggal 21 April 753 SM, mengacu kepada keterangan [[Marcus Terentius Varro]],<ref name=Potter>{{cite book|last1=Potter|first1=D.S.|title=Rome in the Ancient World: From Romulus to Justinian|date=2009|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=9780500251522|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zSU_AQAAIAAJ&q=753}}</ref> dan kira-kira sejak saat itu kota Roma maupun daerah [[Lazio|Latium]] terus-menerus didiami manusia nyaris tanpa jeda. Usaha-usaha ekskavasi pada tahun 2014 telah menyingkap keberadaan tembok yang dibangun jauh sebelum tahun 753 SM. Para arkeolog menemukan tembok batu dan pecahan tembikar yang [[pertanggalan|diperkirakan]] berasal dari rentang waktu abad ke-9 SM sampai permulaan abad ke-8 SM. Selain itu terdapat pula bukti kedatangan manusia ke [[bukit Palatium|bukit Palatin]] seawal-awalnya pada abad ke-10 SM.<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news|last1=Hooper|first1=John|title=Archaeologists' findings may prove Rome a century older than thought|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/13/archaelogists-find-rome-century-older-than-thought|newspaper=The Guardian|date=13 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,874209,00.html |title=Science: Rome: Older Than Ever|magazine=Time |date=21 November 1960}}</ref>

Situs [[Area Sant'Omobono]] sangat penting artinya bagi usaha memahami tiga proses yang saling berkaitan, yaitu monumentalisasi, [[urbanisasi]], dan pembentukan negara di kota Roma menjelang akhir zaman Purba. Situs kuil Sant'Omobono diperkirakan berasal dari abad ke-7 sampai ke–6 SM, sehingga menjadikannya reruntuhan kuil tertua di Roma yang sudah diketahui keberadaannya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/issues/132-1405/trenches/1982-reexcavation-rome-earliest-temple|title=A Brief Glimpse into Early Rome – Archaeology Magazine|first=JASON M.|last=URBANUS|website=archaeology.org}}</ref>

==== Legenda asal mula kota Roma ====
[[File:Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg|thumb|left|[[Serigala Kapitolin]] menyusui si kembar [[Romulus dan Remus]]]]
Asal mula nama kota Roma diduga berasal dari nama [[Romulus]], tokoh legendaris yang dipercaya sebagai pendiri sekaligus raja pertamanya.<ref>[[Livius]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita (buku)|Ab Urbe Condita]]'' I, 7</ref> Konon Romulus dan [[Remus]], anak kembar Dewa Mars dan masih terhitung keturunan [[Aeneas]], pahlawan Troya, disusui seekor serigala betina sesudah ditelantarkan, dan sesudah dewasa berikhtiar mendirikan sebuah kota. Keduanya bertengkar, Romulus membunuh Remus, kemudian menamai kota baru itu menurut namanya sendiri. Sesudah mendirikan dan menamai kotanya sebagaimana dikisahkan dalam legenda tersebut, Romulus tanpa pandang bulu menyambut siapa saja, segala macam orang dari semua lapisan masyarakat, baik budak maupun orang merdeka, untuk menjadi warga negara kota Roma.<ref>[[Livius]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livius)|Ab urbe condita]]'', 1:8</ref> Agar rakyatnya dapat membina rumah tangga, Romulus mengundang suku-suku tetangga menghadiri sebuah perayaan yang diselenggarakan di Roma, kemudian melarikan anak-anak gadis mereka (dikenal sebagai peristiwa [[Pemerkosaan Wanita Sabine|penculikan perempuan-perempuan Sabini]]). Seusai perang melawan orang [[Sabini]], Romulus berbagi takhta dengan [[Titus Tatius]], raja orang Sabini.<ref>[[Livius]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livius)|Ab urbe condita]]'', 1:9–13</ref> Romulus memilih 100 orang dari antara warga Roma yang paling berbudi untuk membentuk [[senat Romawi|''senatus'']] (majelis tua-tua), dewan penasihat raja. Seratus tetua tersebut ia sapa dengan panggilan ''pater'' (bapa), dan keturunan merekalah yang kemudian hari dihormati sebagai ''[[patricius]]'' (bangsawan). Ia membentuk tiga ''[[centuria]]'' (pasukan seratus) [[equites|''eques'']] (prajurit berkuda), yakni Ramni (artinya orang Romawi), Titii (menurut nama raja orang Sabini), dan Luceri (orang Etruski). Ia juga membagi rakyatnya menjadi tiga puluh ''[[curia]]'' (majelis). Nama tiap-tiap ''curia'' diambil dari nama tiga puluh perempuan Sabini yang berjasa melerai dan mengakhiri peperangan antara Romulus dan Tatius. Tiga puluh ''curia'' tersebut menjadi satuan-satuan pengambil keputusan melalui pemungutan suara di dalam [[majelis-majelis Romawi|''comitia curiata'']] (sidang majelis).<ref>[[Livius]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livius)|Ab urbe condita]]'', 1:8, 13</ref>

==== Pembentukan kota ====
Cikal bakal kota Roma adalah padang-padang penggembalaan atau perkampungan-perkampungan di atas [[bukit Palatium|Bukit Palatin]] dan [[Tujuh bukit Roma|bukit-bukit di sekitarnya]], kira-kira {{convert|30|km|0|abbr=on|lk=out}} dari [[Laut Tirenia]] di tepi selatan [[Sungai Tiber]]. Mungkin sekali [[Bukit Kuirinal]] adalah pangkalan terdepan orang [[Sabini]], salah satu kelompok masyarakat penutur [[Rumpun bahasa Italik|rumpun bahasa Itali]]. Di lokasi tersebut, aliran Sungai Tiber berkelok. Di tengah kelokan sungai terdapat sebuah [[Pulau Tiber|pulau]] yang menandai perairan dangkal, tempat orang dapat menyeberang dengan mudah. Dengan lokasi semacam ini, Roma berada di persimpangan lalu lintas sungai dan jalur ulang-alik utara-selatan kaum pedagang di kawasan barat [[semenanjung Italia|Jazirah Italia]].

Temuan-temuan [[arkeologi]]s membuktikan bahwa pada abad ke-8 SM sudah ada dua permukiman berkubu di lokasi yang kemudian hari menjadi kawasan kota Roma, yakni permukiman orang Rumi di Bukit Palatin dan permukiman orang Titientes di Bukit Kuirinal, dibekingi orang Luceres yang mendiami hutan-hutan di sekitarnya.<ref name="Ismarmed.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.ismarmed.com/early.html |title=History of Rome (Italy) |last=Ismarmed.com |work=ismarmed.com |year=2011 |access-date=2022-06-14 |archive-date=2011-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709104434/http://www.ismarmed.com/early.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Rumi, Titientes, dan Luceres hanyalah tiga di antara sekian banyak komunitas penutur rumpun bahasa Itali di daerah [[Latium]], sebuah [[dataran]] luas di Jazirah [[Italia]], pada milenium pertama SM. [[Daftar masyarakat kuno di Italia|Masyarakat-masyarakat penutur rumpun bahasa Itali]] terbentuk pada zaman prasejarah sehingga asal-usulnya tidak diketahui secara pasti, tetapi [[rumpun bahasa India-Eropa]] yang mereka tuturkan datang dari timur pada seperdua akhir milenium ke-2 SM.

Menurut [[Dionysios dari Halikarnassos|Dionisios dari Halikarnasos]], banyak sejarawan Romawi (termasuk Porcius Cato dan Gaius Sempronius) beranggapan bahwa nenek moyang bangsa Romawi (keturunan [[Aborigines|kaum Aborigines]]) adalah orang Yunani, kendati anggapan itu sesungguhnya mereka dapatkan dari khazanah sastra legenda Yunani.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dionisios dari Halikarnasos|author-link=Dionysios dari Halikarnassos|title=Purbakala Romawi|chapter=Buku 1.11|quote=Namun yang paling terpelajar di antara sekalian sejarawan Romawi, antara lain Porsius Kato yang secara saksama menuliskan "asal mula" kota-kota di Italia, Gayus Sempronius, dan banyak lagi sejarawan lain, mengatakan bahwa mereka [para Aborigines] adalah orang-orang Yunani, yakni orang-orang yang dahulu kala berdiam di Akhaya, dan bahwasanya mereka berpindah dari sana beberapa lapis turunan ke belakang sebelum Perang Troya. Tetapi tidak mereka sebut dari suku atau kota Yunani yang mana, tarikh atau nama pemimpin orang-orang yang berpindah itu, maupun sebab-musabab kepindahan mereka dari negeri asal; dan kendati berpatokan kepada sebuah legenda Yunani, sejarawan-sejarawan itu tidak menyebut satu pun nama sejarawan Yunani yang mereka rujuk. Oleh karena itu keterangan tersebut tidak dapat dipastikan kebenarannya.}}</ref> Orang Sabini, pada khususnya, adalah masyarakat yang pertama kali mengemuka di dalam uraian Dionisios dari Halikarnasos. Menurut Dionisios, orang Sabini tanpa disangka-sangka merebut Lista, kota yang dianggap sebagai ibu kota kaum Aborigines.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dionisios dari Halikarnasos|title=Purbakala Romawi|chapter=Jilid I.14|quote=Dua puluh stadion jauhnya dari kota yang sudah disebutkan di atas, berdiri Lista, ibu kota kaum Aborigines, yang dulu direbut orang Sabini dengan serangan mendadak, sesudah malam-malam bergerak dari Amiternum.}}</ref>

==== Konteks Itali ====
[[File:Tomba Francois - Liberazione di Celio Vibenna.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Makam François]], petilasan bangsa Etruski dari abad ke-6 SM]]
Masyarakat penutur rumpun bahasa Itali di lokasi tersebut terdiri atas [[Latin (suku Italik)|orang Latini]] (di sebelah barat), [[Sabini|orang Sabini]] (di sebelah hulu lembah [[Sungai Tiber]]), [[bahasa Umbria|orang Umbri]] (di sebelah timur laut), [[Samnium|orang Samni]] (di sebelah Selatan), [[orang Osci]], dan lain-lain. Pada abad ke-8 SM, kelompok-kelompok tersebut mendiami Jazirah Italia bersama-sama dengan dua bangsa besar, [[Bangsa Etruria|bangsa Etruski]] di utara dan [[bangsa Yunani]] di selatan.

Bangsa Etruski (''Etrusci'' atau ''Tusci'' dalam [[bahasa Latin]]) diketahui berdiam di sebelah utara dari Roma, di [[Etruria]] (kawasan utara daerah Lazio, daerah [[Toskana]], dan sebagian daerah [[Umbria]] sekarang ini). Bangsa ini mendirikan kota-kota seperti [[Tarquinia]], [[Veii]], dan [[Volterra]]. Budaya mereka pun sangat mempengaruhi budaya bangsa Romawi, mengingat beberapa Raja Roma menurut mitos adalah orang Etruski. Lantaran ketiadaan peninggalan pustaka, sastra keagamaan atau filsafat, sebagian besar pengetahuan tentang peradaban Etruski didapatkan para sejarawan dari barang-barang bekal kubur dan temuan-temuan makam.<ref name="Bonfante 2006, page 9">[[#Bonfante2006|Larissa Bonfante:''Etruscan Inscriptions and Etruscan Religion in'' The Religion of the Etruscans – University of Texas Press 2006, halaman 9]]</ref>

Bangsa Yunani sudah mendirikan banyak koloni di kawasan selatan Jazirah [[Italia]] antara tahun 750 sampai 550 SM (kemudian hari disebut daerah [[Magna Graecia]] oleh bangsa Romawi), antara lain [[Cumae|Kumai]], [[Napoli]], [[Reggio di Calabria|Regio Kalabria]], [[Crotone|Kroton]], [[Sibaris]], dan [[Taranto]], demikian pula di sepertiga bagian [[Sisilia]], yakni di bagian timur pulau itu.<ref name="The Story of the Greeks">{{cite web |url=http://example.invalid |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003085828/http://www.heritage-history.com/www/heritage-books.php?Dir=books&MenuItem=display&author=guerber&book=greeks&story=troy |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 Oktober 2011 |title=Heritage History eBook Reader |first=H. A.|last=Guerber |work=heritage-history.com |year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Roman religion">{{cite web |url=http://www.roman-empire.net/religion/religion.html |title=Religion |last=Roman-Empire.net |work=roman-empire.net |year=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512041736/http://www.roman-empire.net/religion/religion.html |archive-date=12 Mei 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Zaman daulat Etruski ===
{{Further|Kerajaan Romawi}}

[[File:TempleofCapitoliumRome.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Kuil Jupiter Optimus Maximus|Kuil Yupiter Aditama Mahabesar]], tahun 526-509 SM<ref>{{Google books |id=qSP4ovkOTpoC |page=6 |title=The Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire}}</ref>]]
[[File:Servian Wall-Termini Station.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Tembok Servius]], tembok pertama kota Roma, sebutannya terambil dari nama Raja Servius Tullius]]

Sesudah tahun 650 SM, [[bangsa Etruria|bangsa Etruski]] kian berkuasa dan memperluas wilayah kedaulatannya sampai ke tengah kawasan utara Jazirah Italia. Menurut tradisi bangsa Romawi, [[Kerajaan Romawi|tujuh orang raja]] silih berganti memerintah kota Roma dari tahun 753 sampai tahun 509 SM, mulai dari [[Romulus dan Remus|Romulus]], yang konon [[pendirian kota Roma|mendirikan kota Roma]] bersama-sama saudara kembarnya, [[Romulus dan Remus|Remus]]. Konon tiga raja terakhir adalah orang Etruski (sekurang-kurangnya peranakan Etruski), yakni [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus|Tarquinius Priscus]], [[Servius Tullius]], dan [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquinius Superbus]] (menurut sumber-sumber sastrawi kuno, ayah Tarquinius Priscus adalah seorang pengungsi Yunani, sementara ibunya berkebangsaan Etruski). Nama-nama mereka merujuk kepada [[Tarquinia]], kota bangsa Etruski.

[[Livius]], [[Plutarkhos]], [[Dionysios dari Halikarnassos|Dionisios dari Halikarnasos]], dan pujangga-pujangga kuno lainnya mengklaim bahwa Roma silih berganti diperintah tujuh orang raja pada abad-abad permulaan sejarah kota itu. Menurut kronologi tradisional yang dibakukan pujangga [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], rentang waktu pemerintahan ketujuh raja tersebut adalah 243 tahun, rata-rata satu orang raja memerintah selama kurang lebih 35 tahun. Pandangan tradisional ini sudah diketepikan dunia kesarjanaan modern sejak terbitnya karya tulis [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr]]. [[suku Galia|Orang-orang Galia]] memusnahkan sebagian besar catatan sejarah Roma ketika menyerang kota itu seusai [[Pertempuran Allia]] tahun 390 SM (menurut Polibios, pertempuran itu terjadi pada tahun 387 atau 386 SM), dan catatan sejarah yang masih tersisa pada akhirnya sirna ditelan waktu atau hilang dicuri orang. Karena tidak ada catatan sejarah yang berasal dari zaman Kerajaan Roma, semua keterangan mengenai raja-rajanya tidak boleh ditelan mentah-mentah begitu saja.<ref>Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Chronology of the World. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. hlm. 69.</ref> Daftar raja-raja Roma pun masih diragukan nilai kesejarahannya, kendati raja-raja terakhir mungkin saja adalah tokoh-tokoh nyata.

Beberapa sejarawan meyakini (sekali lagi, keyakinan mereka masih dipermasalahkan) bahwa Roma berada di bawah pengaruh bangsa Etruski kira-kira seabad lamanya. Pada kurun waktu ini, dibangun sebuah jembatan yang dinamakan [[Pons Sublicius]] untuk menggantikan jalur penyeberangan [[Sungai Tiber]]. [[Cloaca Maxima]] juga dibangun pada kurun waktu ini. Konon bangsa Etruski sangat piawai dalam mengerjakan bangunan-bangunan semacam itu. Dari segi kebudayaan dan teknik, boleh dikata bangsa Etruski adalah bangsa kedua yang besar berpengaruhnya terhadap perkembangan Roma, sesudah Bangsa Yunani.

Manakala kian melebarkan sayap ke selatan, bangsa Etruski bententuhan langsung dengan bangsa Yunani dan mula-mula berhasil tampil unggul dalam konflik-konflik dengan masyarakat pendatang Yunani, tetapi sesudah itu Etruria mengalami kemerosotan. Keadaan ini dimanfaatkan Roma untuk memberontak dan berhasil  merebut kemerdekaannya dari bangsa Etruski sekitar tahun 500 SM. Roma juga mengganti sistem pemerintahannya dari kerajaan menjadi republik yang bertumpu pada [[Senat Romawi|Senatus]], lembaga yang beranggotakan bangsawan-bangsawan kota itu, beserta rapat-rapat rakyat yang mengikutsertakan hampir semua warga pria yang terlahir merdeka di dalam penentuan kebijakan negara dan memilih magistratus setiap tahun.

Bangsa Etruski meninggalkan pengaruh yang lama membekas di dalam berbagai sendi kehidupan masyarakat kota Roma. Dari merekalah bangsa Romawi belajar membangun kuil-kuil, dan mungkin saja bangsa Etruski pula yang memperkenalkan pemujaan tiga serangkai dewata, [[Juno|Yuno]], [[Minerva]], dan [[Jupiter (mitologi)|Yupiter]], dari [[agama bangsa Etruski|dewa-dewi bangsa Etruski]], yaitu [[Uni (mitologi)|Uni]], [[Menrva]], dan [[Tinia]]. Meskipun demikian, pengaruh bangsa Etruski terhadap pertumbuhkembangan Roma acap kali dilebih-lebihkan.<ref>T.J. Cornell, ''The beginnings of Rome'', 1990, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415015967}}</ref> Roma pada hakikatnya adalah sebuah kota Latin, dan tidak pernah menjadi sebuah kota Etruski yang seutuhnya. Lagi pula bukti-bukti menunjukkan bahwa bangsa Romawi mendapat pengaruh yang sangat besar dari kota-kota Yunani di selatan jazirah, terutama melalui hubungan perdagangan.<ref name="Hooker">{{cite web|url=http://public.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CONQHELL.HTM |title=Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires |first=Richard |last=Hooker |work=public.wsu.edu |year=1999 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626115956/http://public.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CONQHELL.HTM |archive-date=26 Juni 2011}}</ref>

=== Republik Romawi ===
{{Further|Penggulingan monarki Romawi|Republik Romawi|Krisis Republik Romawi}}
[[File:Forum Romanum through Arch of Septimius Severus Forum Romanum Rome.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Forum Romawi|Forum Romanum]]'']]
Cerita-cerita yang banyak beredar tentang masa-masa permulaan Republik Romawi (sebelum kira-kira tahun 300 SM, manakala prasasti-prasasti dalam bahasa Latin Lama dan sastra sejarah Yunani mengenai Roma menyajikan lebih dari sekadar bukti-bukti kejadian nyata) pada umumnya dianggap sebagai legenda belaka, nilai kesejarahannya pun menjadi pokok perdebatan di kalangan klasikawan. Menurut anggapan turun-temurun, Republik Romawi berdiri dari tahun 509 SM sampai tahun 27 SM. Selepas tahun 500 SM, Roma dikabarkan menyatukan kekuatan dengan kota-kota bangsa Latin guna menghadapi rongrongan [[Sabini|orang Sabini]]. Dengan memenangkan [[Pertempuran Danau Regillus]] pada tahun 493 SM, Roma menegakkan kembali supremasinya atas negeri-negeri orang Latin yang lepas dari genggamannya sesudah pemerintahan monarki tumbang. Sesudah melewati berbagai pergumulan panjang, supremasi ini akhirnya dapat dikekalkan pada tahun 393, ketika bangsa Romawi berjaya menundukkan [[suku Volski|orang Volsci]] dan [[suku Aequi|orang Aequi]]. Pada tahun 394 SM, bangsa Romawi juga berhasil menyingkirkan ancaman bahaya dengan menundukkan tetangga Etruskinya di [[Veii]]. Kekuasaan bangsa Etruski akhirnya terkungkung di Etruria, dan Roma pun menjadi kota yang paling unggul di Latium.

Pada tahun 509 SM, Roma menyepakati sebuah perjanjian resmi dengan negara kota [[Kartago Kuno|Kartago]]. Perjanjian ini menetapkan batas mandala pengaruh kedua kota itu dan mengatur hubungan perdagangan di antara keduanya.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=69}}

[[File:Roman constitution.png|thumb|right|Bagan yang memperlihatkan pengawasan dan perimbangan di dalam [[tata negara Republik Romawi]]]]
Pada waktu yang sama, [[Heraklides Pontikos|Heraklides]] menyebutkan bahwa Roma pada abad ke-4 adalah salah satu kota [[Yunani Kuno|Yunani]] (Plut. Cam. 22).

Musuh-musuh Roma yang sesungguhnya adalah suku-suku perbukitan yang bertetangga, yaitu orang Volsci, orang Aequi, dan tentu saja orang Etruski. Seiring bergulirnya waktu dan kian meluasnya wilayah kedaulatan bangsa Romawi berkat keberhasilan militernya, muncul musuh-musuh baru. Musuh yang paling sengit adalah [[orang Galia]], yaitu sekumpulan suku dengan persatuan renggang yang menguasai hampir seluruh kawasan utara Eropa, termasuk daerah yang dewasa ini menjadi kawasan utara dan kawasan tengah-timur negara Italia.

Pada tahun 387 SM, Roma dijarah dan dibumihanguskan oleh [[Senonii|orang Senoni]] yang datang dari kawasan timur Italia di bawah kepemimpinan [[Brennus (Kepala Suku Senoni)|Brennus]], kepala suku yang berhasil memimpin rakyatnya mengalahkan angkatan perang Romawi dalam [[Pertempuran Allia]] di [[Etruria]]. Banyak catatan sejarah sezaman yang menyiratkan bahwa orang Senoni ingin menghukum Roma karena sudah melanggar netralitas diplomatisnya di Etruria. Orang Senoni berkirab sejauh  {{convert|130|km}} ke Roma tanpa mencelakai desa-desa di sekitarnya, dan langsung pulang sehabis menjarah Roma.<ref>Ellis, ''The Celts: A History''. hlmn. 61–64. Running Press, London, 2004.</ref> Tidak lama kemudian, Brennus dibuat bertekuk lutut oleh Diktator [[Marcus Furius Camillus|Furius Kamilus]] di [[Tusculum]].<ref name="Lives">[[Plutarkos]], [[:s:Lives (Dryden translation)/Camillus|''Bunga Rampai Riwayat Hidup'']].</ref><ref name="UNVR">{{cite web |url=http://www.unrv.com/empire/roman-timeline-4th-century.php |title=Roman Timeline of the 4th Century BC |work=unrv.com |year=2011 |access-date=7 Juli 2011 |archive-date=11 Juni 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611152224/http://www.unrv.com/empire/roman-timeline-4th-century.php |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sesudah menundukkan orang Senoni, Roma buru-buru membangun kembali gedung-gedungnya dan melancarkan serangan, menaklukkan menundukkan orang Etruski dan merampas wilayah dari orang Galia di utara. Selepas tahun 345 SM, Roma meluaskan mandalanya ke selatan dengan memerangi suku-suku Lain lainnya. Musuh utama Roma di kawasan selatan adalah [[Samnium|orang Samni]] yang terkenal garang. Orang Samni mampu mengecoh dan menjebak legiun Romawi dalam [[Pertempuran Cukit Klaudina]] pada tahun 321 SM. Meskipun beberapa kali dikalahkan lawan, termasuk orang Samni, angkatan perang Romawi pantang mundur. Pada tahun 290 SM, Roma sudah menguasai lebih dari setengah Jazirah Italia. Pada abad ke-3 SM, [[polis]]-polis Yunani di selatan pun dapat dibuat bertekuk lutut.

[[File:Roman conquest of Italy.PNG|thumb|left|[[Ekspansi bangsa Romawi di Jazirah Italia]] dari tahun 500 SM sampai tahun 218 SM melalui [[Perang Latin]] (area merah menyala), [[Pertempuran Samnit|Perang Samni]] (area merah muda dan jingga), [[Perang Piros]] (area putih kuam), [[Perang Punik I]], dan [[Perang Punik II]] (area kuning dan hijau). [[Galia Cisalpina]] (tahun 238–146 SM) dan Lembah [[Alpen]] (tahun 16–7 SM) menyusul belakangan. Area merah tua adalah wilayah kedaulatan [[Republik Romawi]] pada tahun 500 SM.]]

Di tengah peperangan yang tidak berkesudahan itu (dari permulaan zaman Republik sampai zaman Principatus, pintu kuil Dewa [[Yanus]] hanya ditutup dua kali, karena pintu kuil dibiarkan tetap terbuka selama Roma berada dalam masa perang), Roma dihadapkan dengan kemelut kemasyarakatan yang besar, yaitu [[Konflik Tatanan]]. Di dalam pergulatan politik antara golongan ''[[plebs]]'' (jelata) dan golongan ''[[patricius]]'' (bangsawan) [[Republik Romawi]] purba ini, golongan ''plebs'' memperjuangkan kesetaraan dengan golongan ''patricius''. Konflik Tatanan yang memainkan peran penting di dalam pengembangan [[tata negara Republik Romawi]] ini bermula pada tahun 494 SM, ketika semua orang dari golongan ''plebs'' minggat meninggalkan kota ([[secessio plebis]] yang pertama) pada saat Roma sedang sibuk berperang melawan dua suku tetangganya. Peristiwa minggat yang pertama inilah yang menjadi latar belakang penciptaan jabatan [[tribunus plebis]], dan dengan demikian untuk pertama kalinya golongan plebs mendapatkan kekuasaan yang nyata.<ref name="Abbott, 28">Abbott, 28.</ref>

Menurut anggapan turun-temurun, Roma menjadi sebuah negara republik pada tahun 509 SM. Meskipun demikian, Roma harus melewati rentang waktu beberapa abad sebelum menjadi kota gilang-gemilang yang lazim dibayangkan orang. Pada abad ke-3 SM, Roma sudah menjadi kota terkemuka di Jazirah Italia. Semasa berlangsungnya perang-[[perang Punik]] antara Roma dan Kartago (tahun 264–146 SM), marwah Roma kian melejit lantaran untuk pertama kalinya kota itu menjadi ibu kota sebuah kemarajaan lintas laut. Semenjak abad ke-2 SM, populasi Roma mengalami peningkatan yang signifikan, manakala para petani Italia berbondong-bondong pindah ke kota itu sesudah terdepak dari lahan-lahan warisan leluhur mereka lantaran kebijakan baru pemerintah untuk membuka  lahan-lahan usaha tani yang sangat luas dan digarap para budak, yakni lahan-lahan yang disebut [[latifundium]]. Kemenangan atas Kartago dalam [[Perang Punik II]] menghasilkan dua provinsi pertama yang terletak di luar Jazirah Italia, yaitu [[Sisilia]] dan [[Sardinia]].<ref name="Fields,15">{{harvnb|Fields|2007|p=15}}.</ref> Beberapa daerah di [[Spanyol]] ([[Hispania]]) menyusul kemudian, dan pada permulaan abad ke-2, bangsa Romawi terseret ke dalam urusan-urusan Alam Yunani. Pada masa itu, semua kerajaan Helenistis dan negara-negara kota Yunani sedang terpuruk, letih akibat perang-perang saudara yang tidak berkesudahan dan mengandalkan tenaga prajurit upahan.

Bangsa Romawi terkagum-kagum melihat peradaban bangsa Yunani. Bangsa Yunani memandang Roma sebagai sekutu yang berguna dalam perang-perang saudara mereka, dan tidak seberapa lama kemudian legiun-legiun Romawi pun diundang untuk ikut mencampuri urusan-urusan dalam negeri Yunani. Hanya dalam tempo kurang dari 50 tahun, seluruh Jazirah Yunani takluk kepada bangsa Romawi. Legiun Romawi dua kali menumpas fomasi falang angkatan perang Makedonia, pada tahun 197 SM dan pada tahun SM. Pada tahun 146 SM, Konsul [[Lucius Mummius Achaicus|Lucius Mummius]] menyerbu [[Korintus]] dan pada akhirnya merenggut kemerdekaan dari negeri Yunani. Tahun itu juga, [[Scipio Aemilianus|Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus]], anak [[Scipio Africanus]], meluluhlantakkan kota [[Kartago]], dan menjadikannya salah satu provinsi Romawi.

[[File:Map of downtown Rome during the Roman Empire large.png|thumb|Peta pusat kota Roma pada zaman Kekaisaran Romawi]]
Pada tahun berikutnya, angkatan perang Romawi di bawah pimpinan [[Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus|Tiberius Gracchus]] berhasil mendaulat Spanyol, selanjutnya mulai menjajaki daratan Asia ketia raja [[Pergamon]] yang terakhir menyerahkan kerajaannya ke dalam tangan bangsa Romawi. Menjelang akhir abad ke-2, muncul tantangan baru. Serombongan besar [[Orang-orang Jermanik|suku bangsa Jermani]], yakni orang [[Cimbri]] dan orang [[Teuton|Teutones]], menyeberangi Sungai Rhone dan memasuki Jazirah Italia. [[Gaius Marius]] terpilih menjadi konsul lima kali berturut-turut (total tujuh kali terpilih menjadi konsul), dan secara telak memenagkan pertempuran pada tahun 102 SM dan 101 SM. Ia juga merombak dan memperbaharui angkatan perang Romawi, memberinya tatanan yang sedemikian baiknya sehingga terus dipakai tanpa perubahan berabad-abad lamanya.

Tiga puluh tahun pertama dari abad terakhir sebelum tarikh Masehi diwarnai masalah-masalah internal yang mengancam eksistensi Republik Romawi. [[Perang Sosial (91–88 SM)|Perang Mitra]], antara Roma melawan para sekutunya, dan [[Perang Budak Romawi|Perang Budak]] (pemberontakan para budak) merupakan konflik-konflik yang sukar diatasi.<ref>Plutarch Life of Crassus 8.</ref> Semuanya berlangsung di Jazirah Italia, dan memaksa bangsa Romawi untuk mengubah kebijakannya terkait para sekutu dan kawulanya.<ref>Smith, ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'', [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-dgra/1041.html "Servus", hlm. 1038] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210042250/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-dgra/1041.html |date=10 February 2013 }}; memerinci sarana hukum dan militer yang digunakan untuk memperbudak orang.</ref> Ketika itu Roma sudah menjadi negara dengan wilayah kedaulatan yang sangat luas, dan menjadi sangat makmur lantaran bergelimang harta kekayaan yang berasal bangsa-bangsa taklukan (dalam bentuk upeti, bahan pangan, maupun tenaga kerja alias budak belian). Para sekutu Roma merasa kesal lantaran sudah bersusah payah berperang bahu-membahu dengan bangsa Romawi tetapi hanya mendapatkan sedikit keuntungan lantaran bukan warga negara Romawi. Sekalipun dikalahkan, tuntutan mereka pada akhirnya dikabulkan, dan pada permulaan abad pertama tarikh Masehi seluruh penduduk Jazirah Italia pada praktiknya adalah warga negara Romawi.

Meskipun demikian, pertumbuhan Imperium Romanum (kekuasaan bangsa Romawi) melahirkan masalah-masalah baru dan tuntutan-tuntutan baru yang tidak dapat diatasi oleh sistim politik lama Republik Romawi dengan para magistratusnya yang setiap tahun dipilih langsung oleh rakyat maupun pembagian kekuasaanya. [[Perang saudara kedua Sulla|Perang Saudara Sula]] yang disusul masa pemerintahannya selaku diktator, perintah-perintah luar biasa [[Pompeius|Pompeius Magnus]], dan [[Triumvirat]]us pertama kian memperjelas kenyataan tersebut. Pada bulan Januari 49&nbsp;SM, [[Yulius Kaisar]], panglima yang berjaya menaklukkan Galia, [[Penyeberangan Sungai Rubiko|menyeberangi Sungai Rubiko]] berasama legiun-legiunnya, menduduki kota Roma, dan melancarkan [[Perang Saudara Caesar|perang saudara]] melawan Pompeius. Pada tahun berikutnya, Yulius Kaisar berhasil menghancurkan lawan-lawannya, dan memerintah Roma selama empat tahun. Sesudah ia tewas terbunuh pada tahun 44&nbsp;SM,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mar 15, 44 BC: Julius Caesar Assassinated |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/julius-caesar-assassinated/ |access-date=18 Desember 2023 |website=National Geographic |archive-date=19 Desember 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219010335/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/julius-caesar-assassinated/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''senatus'' berusaha memulihkan kembali tatanan republik, tetapi tokoh-tokoh andalan mereka, [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Markus Yunius Brutus]] (keturunan pendiri Republik Romawi) dan [[Gaius Cassius Longinus|Gayus Kasius Longinus]], dibuat bertekuk lutut oleh [[Markus Antonius]], perwira bawahan Yulius Kaisar, dan [[Augustus|Oktovianus]], kemenakan Yulius Kaisar.

Tahun 44 SM sampai tahun 31 SM adalah tahun-tahun perebutan kekuasaan antara Markus Antonius dan Oktavianus (kemudian hari dikenal dengan nama Agustus). Pada tanggal 2 September 31 SM, di tanjung [[Aktion]], Jazirah Yunani, pecah pertempuran terakhir yang berlangsung di laut. Oktavianus keluar sebagai pemenang, dan menjadi satu-satunya penguasa Roma (dan seluruh jajahannya). Perang laut tersebut menjadi tonggak sejarah yang menandai akhir zaman Republik dan awal zaman [[Principatus]].<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/fallofromanrepublic_article_01.shtml |title=BBC – History – The Fall of the Roman Republic |work=BBC History |year=2011 |access-date=21 Desember 2019 |archive-date=9 Desember 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209154544/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/fallofromanrepublic_article_01.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Republik Romawi tidak pernah dipulihkan, tetapi juga tidak pernah dihapuskan, oleh karena itu peristiwa yang menandari peralihannya ke [[Kekaisaran Romawi]] meraupakan perkara penafsiran. Para sejarawan sudah mengusulkan peristiwa pengangkatan [[Yulius Kaisar]] menjadi [[diktator Romawi|diktator]] seumur hidup pada tahun 44&nbsp;SM, peristiwa kekalahan [[Markus Antonius]] dalam [[Pertempuran Aktion]] pada tahun 31&nbsp;SM, maupun peristiwa pelimpahan kuasa luar biasa oleh [[senat Romawi|''senatus'']] kepada [[Augustus|Oktavianus (Agustus)]] berdasarkan [[Augustus#Penuntasan Pertama|Keputusan Penuntasan Pertama]] pada tahun 27&nbsp;SM, sebagai tonggak sejarah yang menandai akhir zaman Republik Romawi.</ref>

=== Kekaisaran Romawi ===
{{Further|Kekaisaran Romawi}}
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; width:300px; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:White; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Linimasa Roma</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"|'''Kekaisaran Romawi'''
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 44&nbsp;SM – 14 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Augustus|Agustus]] mengasaskan pemerintahan [[Kekaisaran Romawi|negara kekaisaran]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 64 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Kebakaran Besar Roma|Kebakaran Besar di Roma]] pada masa pemerintahan [[Nero]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 69–96 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Zaman [[Dinasti Flavia|Kulawangsa Flavia]]. Pembangunan [[Koloseum]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Abad ke-3 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Krisis Abad Ketiga|Kemelut besar]] melanda Kekaisaran Romawi. Pembangunan [[Pemandian Karakala]] dan [[Tembok Aurelianus]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 284–337 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Zaman [[Diokletianus|Dioklesianus]] dan [[Konstantinus I|Konstantinus]]. Pembangunan basilika-basilika Kristen yang pertama. [[Pertempuran Jembatan Milvius]]. Ibu kota Kekaisaran Romawi dipindahkan dari Roma ke [[Konstantinopel]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 395 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Perpisahan paripurna [[Kekaisaran Romawi Barat]] dan [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 410 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Bangsa [[Goth]] dipimpin [[Alarik I|Alarik]] menyerbu Roma.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 455 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Bangsa [[Vandal]] dipimpin [[Genserik|Gaiserik]] menyerbu Roma.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 476 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Kekaisaran Romawi Barat]] tumbang, dan [[Romulus Augustulus|Romulus Auustus]], kaisarnya yang terakhir, digulingkan.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Abad ke-6 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Perang Goth (535–554)]]. Bangsa Goth memutuskan saluran-saluran akuaduk dalam pengepungan tahun 537. Secara tradisional, peristiwa ini dijadikan para sejarawan sebagai tonggak sejarah penanda bermulanya Abad Pertengahan di Italia<ref>Rodgers, Nigel. ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire'', Lorenz Books, {{ISBN|978-0-7548-1911-0}} (hlm.281)</ref>
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 608 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Kaisar [[Fokas]] menghibahkan gedung [[Pantheon, Roma|Panteon]] kepada [[Paus Bonifasius IV]], dengan mengubahnya menjadi gereja. [[Tugu Fokas]] (tambahan terakhir pada ''Forum Romanum'') didirikan.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 630 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Kuria Yulia]] (kosong sejak hilangnya [[senat Romawi|''senatus'']]) diubah menjadi  Basilika [[Sant'Adriano al Foro]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 663 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Konstans II]] melakukan lawatan dua belas hari ke Roma, dan menjadi satu-satunya Kaisar Romawi yang menjejakkan kainya di kota Roma selepas dua abad. Ia melucuti hiasan-hiasan dan logam perunggu dari gedung-gedung Roma untuk dibawa pulang ke Konstantinopel.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 751 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Bangsa Lombardi menaklukkan [[Eksarkatus Ravenna|Eksarkatus Ravena]], Kadipaten Roma sepenuhnya terputus dari Kekaisaran Romawi Timur.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 754 M
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Sekutu dari bangsa Franka, [[Pippin yang Pendek|Pipin Muda]], yang didapuk sebagai ''[[Patricius (Eropa pasca-Romawi)|Patricius]] Romawi'', menginvasi Italia. Berdirinya [[Negara Gereja]].
|}

==== Awal mula kekaisaran ====
[[File:Vita Romae.webm|thumb|left|Kehidupan di Roma; animasi dalam bahasa Latin dengan takarir Inggris]]
Menjelang berakhirnya zaman Republik Romawi, kota Roma sudah mencapai kemegahan yang layak dimiliki ibu kota sebuah kemaharajaan yang menguasai seluruh [[Laut Tengah]]. Ketika itu Roma adalah kota terbesar di dunia. Puncak kepadatan populasinya diperkirakan berkisar pada angka 450.000 sampai lebih dari 3,5&nbsp;juta jiwa, sementara angka perkiraan yang paling populer di kalangan sejarawan adalah 1 sampai 2&nbsp;juta jiwa.<ref>{{cite book |last= Aldrete |first= Gregory S. |author-link= Gregory S. Aldrete |title= Daily life in the Roman city: Rome, Pompeii and Ostia |publisher= Greenwood Press |year= 2004 |location= Westport, CT |page= [https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinroman00aldr/page/22 22] |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinroman00aldr |url-access= registration |quote= rome first city with one million inhabitants -.com .edu. |isbn= 0-313-33174-X |access-date= 8 Juli 2011}}</ref> Kemegahan Roma meningkat pada masa pemerintahan [[Augustus|Kaisar Agustus]], yang menuntaskan proyek-proyek pembangunan Yulius Kaisar dan menambahkan proyek-proyek yang tercetus dari gagasannya sendiri, misalnya [[Forum Agustus]] dan [[Ara Pacis]]. Konon Kaisar Agustus pernah mengatakan bahwa Roma yang ia jumpai adalah sebuah kota batu-bata dan Roma yang ia tinggalkan adalah sebuah kota pualam (''Urbem latericium invenit, marmoream reliquit''). Para pengganti Kaisar Agustus berusaha mengulang keberhasilannya dengan cara menambahkan kontribusi mereka sendiri kepada kota itu. Pada tahun 64 M, masa pemerintahan Kaisar [[Nero]], terjadi [[Kebakaran Besar Roma|musibah kebakaran besar]] yang menghanguskan sebagian besar kota Roma, tetapi musibah tersebut justru dijadikan alasan dilakukannya usaha-usaha pengembangan yang baru.<ref name="Tacitus, Annals XV.40">Tacitus, ''Annals''XV.40</ref><ref name="Fordham">{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/diocassius-nero1.html |title=Ancient History Sourcebook: Dio Cassius: Nero and the Great Fire 64 AD |last=Fordham.edu|work=fordham.edu |year=2009}}</ref>

Roma pada masa itu adalah kota yang disubsidi pemerintah. Kurang lebih 15 sampai 25 persen pasokan gandumnya dibiayai oleh pemerintah pusat. Usaha perdagangan dan industri hanya memainkan peran kecil jika dibandingkan dengan usaha perdagangan dan industri di kota-kota lain semisal [[Aleksandria]]. Ini berarti Roma harus bergantung kepada barang-barang dan produksi dari daerah-daerah lain di Kekaisaran Romawi untuk menghidupi warganya yang begitu banyak. Sebagian besar barang-barang tersebut dibiayai dengan pajak yang dipungut pemerintah. Andaikata tidak disubsidi pemerintah, mungkin saja Roma hanyalah sebuah kota kecil.<ref>Oates, W. J. (09, 30 Juni). Population of Rome. Temu balik tanggal 11, 16 Maret, dari http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Journals/CP/29/2/Population_of_Rome*.html</ref>

[[File:Arco di Gallieno.jpg|thumb|left|Gapura [[Gallienus|Galienus]] adalah satu dari segelintir monumen kuno di kota Roma yang berasal dari abad ke-3, dan berlokasi di Tembok Servianus. Dua gapura pengapitnya dihancurkan pada tahun 1447.]]

Populasi Roma merosot sesudah mencapai puncaknya pada abad ke-2. Pada akhir abad itu, yakni pada masa pemerintahan [[Marcus Aurelius|Kaisar Markus Aurelius]], Roma dilanda [[Wabah Antoninus|Wabah Antonina]] yang merenggut 2.000 nyawa sehari.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/gloucestershire/7374836.stm |title='Plague' killed Roman grave dead |work=BBC News |date=30 April 2008}}</ref> Markus Aurelius mangkat pada tahun 180. Masa pemerintahannya menjadi penutup zaman "[[Dinasti Nerva-Antoninus|Lima Kaisar Budiman]]" dan [[Pax Romana]]. Putranya, [[Commodus|Komodus]], yang naik takhta pada tahun 177 M, mengampu kuasa imperium paripurna, yang santer dikait-kaitkan dengan kemerosotan berangsur Kekaisaran Romawi Barat. Populasi Roma tinggal secuil dari jumlah tertinggi yang pernah dicapainya ketika [[Tembok Aurelianus]] rampung dikerjakan pada tahun 273 (pada tahun itu, populasi Roma tinggal 500.000 jiwa saja). Pada masa itu, sebagian kaum ningrat Romawi hidup berpindah-pindah di Roma setelah bencana letusan [[Gunung Vesuvius]] pada tahun 79 M membinasakan kota [[Pompeii]].

==== Kemelut abad ke-3 ====
Semenjak permulaan abad ke-3, keadaan mulai berubah. "[[Krisis Abad Ketiga|Kemelut Abad Ketiga]]" menyifatkan bencana-bencana dan gejolak-gejolak political yang melanda Kekaisaran Romawi yang sudah berada di ambang kehancuran. Keresahan akibat dibayang-bayangi ancaman invasi bangsa barbar terlihat jelas pada keputusan Kaisar [[Aurelianus]] untuk memagari ibukota dengan [[Tembok Aurelianus|tembok]] raksasa sepanjang hampir {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=on|lk=off}} yang rampung dikerjakan pada tahun 273. Secara resmi Roma tetap menjadi ibu kota [[Kekaisaran Romawi|kekaisaran]], tetapi para kaisar semakin jarang melewatkan waktu di kota itu. Sesudah perombakan politik yang dilakukan Kaisar [[Diokletianus|Dioklesianus]] pada abad ke-3, Roma kehilangan peran tradisionalnya sebagai pusat penyelenggaraan negara. Kemudian hari, [[Kekaisaran Romawi Barat|kaisar-kaisar wilayah barat]] menjalankan pemerintahan dari kota [[Milan]] atau [[Ravenna]], maupun dari kota-kota di [[Galia]]. Pada tahun 330, Kaisar [[Konstantinus I]] mendirikan ibu kota kedua di [[Konstantinopel]].

==== Kristenisasi ====
{{Further|Kekristenan purba|Sandyakala politeisme Yunani-Romawi|Peralihan Konstantinus|Gereja negara Kekaisaran Romawi}}

[[Agama Kristen]] masuk ke Roma pada abad ke-1 M.<!-- For the first two centuries of the [[Christian era]], Imperial authorities largely viewed Christianity simply as a Jewish sect rather than a distinct religion. No emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church, and persecutions, such as they were, were carried out under the authority of local government officials.<ref>Graeme Clarke, "Third-Century Christianity," in ''Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005), vol. 12, p. 616; W.H.C. Frend, "Persecutions: Genesis and Legacy," ''Cambridge History of Christianity: Origins to Constantine'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), vol. 1, p. 510. See also: Timothy D. Barnes, "Legislation Against the Christians," ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 58 (1968) 32–50; G.E.M de Sainte-Croix, "Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted?" ''Past & Present'' 26 (1963) 6–38; Herbert Musurillo, ''The Acts of the Christian Martyrs'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), pp. lviii–lxii; and [[A.N. Sherwin-White]], "The Early Persecutions and Roman Law Again", ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 3.2 (1952) 199–213.</ref> A surviving letter from [[Pliny the Younger]], governor of Bythinia, to the emperor [[Trajan]] describes his persecution and executions of Christians; Trajan notably responded that Pliny should not seek out Christians nor heed anonymous denunciations, but only punish open Christians who refused to recant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mesacc.edu/~tomshoemaker/handouts/pliny.html |title=Pliny the Younger on Christ |publisher=Mesacc.edu |access-date=23 July 2015}}</ref>

[[Suetonius]] mentions in passing that during the reign of [[Nero]] "punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous [[Religion in ancient Rome#Superstitio and magic|superstition]]" ''(superstitionis novae ac maleficae)''.<ref>Suetonius, ''Life of Nero'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#16 16.2]: ''afflicti suppliciis Christiani, genus hominum superstitionis novae ac maleficae.''</ref> He gives no reason for the punishment. [[Tacitus]] reports that after the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in AD&nbsp;64, some among the population held Nero responsible and that the emperor attempted to deflect blame onto the Christians.<ref name="annals-xv-44">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|XV.44]]</ref> The war against the Jews during Nero's reign, which so destabilised the empire that it led to civil war and Nero's suicide, provided an additional rationale for suppression of this 'Jewish' sect.

[[Diocletian]] undertook what was to be the [[Diocletianic Persecution|most severe and last major persecution of Christians]], lasting from 303 to 311. Christianity had become too widespread to suppress, and in 313, the [[Edict of Milan]] made tolerance the official policy. [[Constantine&nbsp;I]] (sole ruler 324–337) became the first Christian emperor, and in 380 [[Theodosius&nbsp;I]] established Christianity as the official religion.

[[Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I|Under Theodosius]], visits to the pagan temples were forbidden,<ref name="Routery1997ch4">Routery, Michael (1997) [http://www.vinland.org/scamp/grove/kreich/chapter4.html ''The First Missionary War. The Church take over of the Roman Empire'', Ch. 4, ''The Serapeum of Alexandria''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531093733/http://www.vinland.org/scamp/grove/kreich/chapter4.html |date=31 May 2010 }}</ref> the [[Sacred fire of Vesta|eternal fire]] in the Temple of [[Vesta (mythology)|Vesta]] in the [[Roman Forum]] extinguished, the [[Vestal Virgins]] disbanded, [[auspices]] and [[witchcraft]]ing punished. Theodosius refused to restore the [[Altar of Victory]] in the Senate House, as asked by remaining pagan Senators.

The Empire's conversion to Christianity made the [[Pope|Bishop of Rome]] (later called the Pope) the senior religious figure in the Western Empire, as officially stated in 380 by the [[Edict of Thessalonica]]. In spite of its increasingly marginal role in the Empire, Rome retained its historic prestige, and this period saw the last wave of construction activity: Constantine's predecessor [[Maxentius]] built buildings such as its basilica in the [[Roman Forum|Forum]], Constantine himself erected the [[Arch of Constantine]] to celebrate his victory over the former, and [[Diocletian]] built the greatest [[Baths of Diocletian|baths]] of all. Constantine was also the first patron of official Christian buildings in the city. He donated the [[Lateran Palace]] to the Pope, and built the first great basilica, the [[old St. Peter's Basilica]].

==== Invasi bangsa Jermani dan tumbangnya kekaisaran barat ====
[[File:Basilica of Saint Lawrence outside the Walls.jpg|thumb|220px|right|The ancient basilica of St. Lawrence outside the walls was built directly over the tomb of the people's favourite Roman martyr]]

Still Rome remained one of the strongholds of Paganism, led by the aristocrats and senators. However, the new walls did not stop the city being sacked first by [[Alaric I|Alaric]] on 24 August 410, by [[Genseric|Geiseric]] on 2 June 455, and even by general [[Ricimer]]'s unpaid Roman troops (largely composed of barbarians) on 11 July 472.<ref name="History Stack">{{cite web |url=http://historystack.posterous.com/455-sack-of-rome |title=455 Sack of Rome – historystack|last=History Stack |work=historystack.posterous.com |year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopaedia2">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Alaric,+King+of+the+Visigoths |title=Alaric, King of the Visigoths definition of Alaric, King of the Visigoths in the Free Online Encyclopedia. |last=Encyclopaedia2|encyclopedia=encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com |year=2011}}</ref> 
This was the first time in almost 800&nbsp;years that Rome had fallen to an enemy. The previous [[Battle of the Allia|sack of Rome]] had been accomplished by the [[Gaul]]s under their leader [[Brennus (4th century)|Brennus]] in 387&nbsp;BC. The sacking of 410 is seen as a major landmark in the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire]]. [[St. Jerome]], living in Bethlehem at the time, wrote that "The City which had taken the whole world was itself taken."<ref name=Jerome127>St Jerome, Letter CXXVII. To Principia, [[:s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127]] paragraph 12.</ref> These sackings of the city astonished all the Roman world. In any case, the damage caused by the sackings may have been overestimated. The population already started to decline from the late 4th century onward, although around the middle of the fifth century it seems that Rome continued to be the most populous city of the two parts of the Empire, with a population of not less than 650,000 inhabitants.<ref>Arnold HM Jones The Decline of the Ancient World, Lonmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London 1966</ref> 
The decline greatly accelerated following the capture of [[Africa Proconsularis]] by the [[Vandals]]. Many inhabitants now fled as the city no longer could be supplied with grain from Africa from the mid-5th century onward.

At the beginning of the 6th century Rome's population may have been less than 100,000. Many monuments were being destroyed by the citizens themselves, who stripped stones from closed temples and other precious buildings, and even burned statues to make lime for their personal use. In addition, most of the increasing number of churches were built in this way. For example, the [[Old Saint Peter's Basilica|first Saint Peter's Basilica]] was erected using spoils from the abandoned [[Circus of Nero]].<ref name=met>{{cite journal |author= Boorsch, Suzanne |date= Winter 1982–1983 |title= The Building of the Vatican: The Papacy and Architecture |journal= The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin |volume= 40 |issue= 3 |pages= 4–8 }}</ref> This architectural cannibalism was a constant feature of Roman life until the [[Renaissance]]. From the 4th century, imperial edicts against stripping of stones and especially marble were common, but the need for their repetition shows that they were ineffective. Sometimes new churches were created by simply taking advantage of early Pagan temples, while sometimes changing the Pagan god or hero to a corresponding Christian saint or martyr. In this way, the Temple of Romulus and Remus became the basilica of the twin saints [[Santi Cosma e Damiano|Cosmas and Damian]]. Later, the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], Temple of All Gods, became the church of All Martyrs.

==== Usaha restorasi Romawi Timur ====
{{Further|Ostrogothic Kingdom|Duchy of Rome|Sack of Rome (546)}}
[[File:Roma-Porta San Paolo.JPG|thumb|220px|[[Porta San Paolo]], a gate in the [[Aurelian Walls]], built between 271 AD and 275 AD. During the [[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic Wars]] of the mid-6th century, Rome was besieged several times by Eastern Roman and Ostrogoth armies. Ostrogoths of Totila entered through this gate in 549, because of the treason of the [[Isauria]]n garrison.]]
[[File:South east view of the Pantheon from Piazza Minerva, 2006.jpg|thumb|South east view of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]]]]
[[File:RomaForoRomanoColonnaFoca.JPG|thumb|220px|The [[Column of Phocas]], last imperial monument in the [[Roman Forum]].]]
In 480, the last Western Roman emperor, [[Julius Nepos]], was murdered and a Roman general of barbarian origin, [[Odoacer]], declared allegiance to Eastern Roman emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]].<ref name="Bury">{{cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/12*.html#4 |title=J. B. Bury: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'',§4 • Vol. I Chap. XII |first=J. B. |last=Bury |work=penelope.uchicago.edu |year=2011}}</ref> Despite owing nominal allegiance to [[Constantinople]], Odoacer and later the [[Ostrogoths]] continued, like the last emperors, to rule Italy as a virtually independent realm from [[Ravenna]]. Meanwhile, the Senate, even though long since stripped of wider powers, continued to administer Rome itself, with the Pope usually coming from a senatorial family. This situation continued until [[Theodahad]] murdered [[Amalasuntha]], a pro-imperial Gothic queen, and usurped the power in 535. The [[List of Byzantine emperors|Eastern Roman emperor]], [[Justinian I]] (reigned 527–565), used this as a pretext to send forces to Italy under his famed general [[Belisarius]], recapturing the city next year, on December 9, 536 AD. In 537–538, the Eastern Romans successfully defended the city in a [[Siege of Rome (537–538)|year-long siege]] against the Ostrogoth army, and eventually took Ravenna, too.<ref name="Bury"/>

Gothic resistance revived however, and on 17 December 546, the Ostrogoths under [[Totila]] recaptured and [[Sack of Rome (546)|sacked Rome]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjU3mJ7BJggC |title=A Traveller in Rome |date=1 April 2009|isbn=978-0786730704|last1=Morton |first1=H. V. |author-link = H. V. Morton}}</ref> Belisarius soon recovered the city, but the Ostrogoths retook it in 549. Belisarius was replaced by [[Narses]], who captured Rome from the Ostrogoths for good in 552, ending the so-called [[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic Wars]] which had devastated much of Italy. The continual war around Rome in the 530s and 540s left it in a state of total disrepair – near-abandoned and desolate with much of its lower-lying parts turned into unhealthy marshes as the drainage systems were neglected and the Tiber's embankments fell into disrepair in the course of the latter half of the 6th century.<ref>P. Llewellyn, ''Rome in the Dark Ages'' (London 1993), p. 97.</ref> Here, [[malaria]] developed. The [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]] except for one were not repaired. The population, without imports of grain and oil from Sicily, shrank to less than 50,000 concentrated near the [[Tiber River|Tiber]] and around the [[Campus Martius]], abandoning those districts without water supply. There is a legend, significant though untrue, that there was a moment where no one remained living in Rome. {{citation needed|reason=No source given for the legend|date=November 2014}}

Justinian I provided grants for the maintenance of public buildings, aqueducts and bridges – though, being mostly drawn from an [[Italy]] dramatically impoverished by the recent wars, these were not always sufficient. He also styled himself the patron of its remaining [[scholarly method|scholar]]s, [[orator]]s, [[physician]]s and [[lawyer]]s in the stated hope that eventually more youths would seek a better [[education]]. After the wars, the Senate was theoretically restored, but under the supervision of the [[Praefectus urbi|urban prefect]] and other officials appointed by, and responsible to, the Eastern Roman authorities in [[Ravenna]].

However, the Pope was now one of the leading religious figures in the entire Byzantine Roman Empire and effectively more powerful locally than either the remaining senators or local Eastern Roman (Byzantine) officials. In practice, local power in Rome devolved to the Pope and, over the next few decades, both much of the remaining possessions of the senatorial aristocracy and the local Byzantine Roman administration in Rome were absorbed by the [[Catholic Church|Church]].

The reign of Justinian's nephew and successor [[Justin II]] (reigned 565–578) was marked from the [[Italy|Italian]] point of view by the invasion of the [[Lombards]] under [[Alboin]] (568). In capturing the regions of [[Benevento]], [[Lombardy]], [[Piedmont]], [[Spoleto]] and [[Tuscany]], the invaders effectively restricted Imperial authority to small islands of land surrounding a number of coastal cities, including [[Ravenna]], [[Naples]], [[Rome]] and the area of the future [[Venice]]. The one inland city continuing under Eastern Roman control was [[Perugia]], which provided a repeatedly threatened overland link between Rome and Ravenna. In 578 and again in 580, the Senate, in some of its last recorded acts, had to ask for the support of [[Tiberius II Constantine]] (reigned 578–582) against the approaching Dukes, [[Faroald I of Spoleto]] and [[Zotto]] of [[Duchy of Benevento|Benevento]].

[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (reigned 582–602) added a new factor in the continuing conflict by creating an alliance with [[Childebert II|Childebert II of Austrasia]] (reigned 575–595). The armies of the [[List of Frankish kings|Frankish King]] invaded the Lombard territories in 584, 585, 588 and 590. Rome had suffered badly from a disastrous flood of the Tiber in 589, followed by a plague in 590. The latter is notable for the [[legend]] of the [[angel]] seen, while the newly elected [[Pope Gregory I]] (term 590–604) was passing in procession by [[Castel Sant'Angelo|Hadrian's Tomb]], to hover over the building and to sheathe his flaming sword as a sign that the pestilence was about to cease. The city was safe from capture at least.

[[Agilulf]], however, the new Lombard King (reigned 591 to c. 616), managed to secure peace with [[Childebert II|Childebert]], reorganised his territories and resumed activities against both [[Naples]] and Rome by 592. With the Emperor preoccupied with wars in the eastern borders and the various succeeding [[Exarch]]s unable to secure Rome from invasion, Gregory took personal initiative in starting negotiations for a [[peace treaty]]. This was completed in the autumn of 598—later recognised by Maurice—lasting until the end of his reign.

The position of the [[Pope|Bishop of Rome]] was further strengthened under the usurper [[Phocas]] (reigned 602–610). Phocas recognised his primacy over that of the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] and even decreed [[Pope Boniface III]] (607) to be "the head of all the [[Christian Church|Churches]]". Phocas's reign saw the erection of the last imperial monument in the [[Roman Forum]], the [[column of Phocas|column]] bearing his name. He also gave the Pope the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], at the time closed for centuries, and thus probably saved it from destruction.

During the 7th century, an influx of both Byzantine Roman officials and churchmen from elsewhere in the empire made both the local lay aristocracy and Church leadership largely Greek speaking. The population of Rome, a magnet for pilgrims, may have increased to 90,000.<ref>[[Richard Krautheimer]], Rome, Profile of a City 312–1308, 2000 pp. 62–64 {{ISBN|0-691-04961-0}}</ref> Eleven of thirteen Popes between 678 and 752 were of Greek or Syrian descent.<ref>Krautheimer, p. 90</ref> However, the strong Byzantine Roman cultural influence did not always lead to political harmony between Rome and Constantinople. In the controversy over [[Monothelitism]], popes found themselves under severe pressure (sometimes amounting to physical force) when they failed to keep in step with Constantinople's shifting theological positions. In 653, [[Pope Martin I]] was deported to Constantinople and, after a show trial, exiled to the Crimea, where he died.<ref name="Catholic Online">{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=80 |title=Pope Saint Martin I – Saints & Angels – Catholic Online |author=Catholic Online |work=catholic.org |year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Catholic Encyclopaedia 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09723c.htm |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA: Pope Saint Martin I |author=Catholic Encyclopaedia |work=newadvent.org |year=2009}}</ref>

Then, in 663, Rome had its first imperial visit for two centuries, by [[Constans II]]—its worst disaster since the Gothic Wars when the Emperor proceeded to strip Rome of metal, including that from buildings and statues, to provide armament materials for use against the [[Saracen]]s. However, for the next half century, despite further tensions, Rome and the Papacy continued to prefer continued Byzantine Roman rule: in part because the alternative was Lombard rule, and in part because Rome's food was largely coming from Papal estates elsewhere in the Empire, khususnya [[Sisilia]].

== Roma pada Abad Pertengahan ==

{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; width:300px; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:White; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Rome Timeline</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"|'''Roma pada Abad Pertengahan'''
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|772
|style="font-size: 90%;"|The [[Lombards]] briefly conquer Rome but [[Charlemagne]] liberates the city a year later.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|800
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Charlemagne is crowned [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] in [[St. Peter's Basilica]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|846
|style="font-size: 90%;"|The [[Saracen]]s sack [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|852
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Building of the [[Leonine City|Leonine Walls]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|962
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Otto I]] crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor]] by [[Pope John XII]]
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1000
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Emperor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] and [[Pope Sylvester II]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1084
|style="font-size: 90%;"|The [[Normans]] sack Rome.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1144
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Creation of the [[medieval commune|commune]] of Rome.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1300
|style="font-size: 90%;"|First [[Jubilee (Christian)|Jubilee]] proclaimed by [[Pope Boniface VIII]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1303
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Foundation of the [[Sapienza University of Rome|Roman University]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1309
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Pope Clement V]] moves the [[Holy See|Holy Seat]] to [[Avignon]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1347
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Cola di Rienzo]] proclaims himself [[tribune]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1377
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Pope Gregory XI]] moves the [[Holy See|Holy Seat]] back to Rome.
|}

===Break with Constantinople and formation of the Papal States===
{{Further|Duchy of Rome|Papal States}}

In 727, [[Pope Gregory II]] refused to accept the decrees of Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]], which promoted the Emperor's [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]].<ref>Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar Holmes McNeal, eds., Source Book for Mediæval History (New York: Scribners, 1905; reprint AMS Press, 1971).</ref> 
Leo reacted first by trying in vain to abduct the Pontiff, and then by sending a force of [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Ravennate]] troops under the command of the [[Exarch]] Paulus, but they were pushed back by the Lombards of Tuscia and Benevento. Byzantine general [[Eutychius (exarch)|Eutychius]] sent west by the Emperor successfully captured Rome and restored it as a part of the empire in 728.

On 1 November 731, a council was called in [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's]] by [[Pope Gregory III|Gregory III]] to excommunicate the iconoclasts. The Emperor responded by confiscating large Papal estates in [[Sicily]] and [[Calabria]] and transferring areas previously ecclesiastically under the Pope to the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]]. Despite the tensions Gregory III never discontinued his support to the imperial efforts against external threats.

In this period the Lombard kingdom revived under the leadership of King [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards|Liutprand]]. In 730 he razed the countryside of Rome to punish the Pope who had supported the duke of Spoleto.<ref name="Third Millennium Library I">{{cite web |url=http://www.third-millennium-library.com/MedievalHistory/The-Lombard-Kingdom/10-LAWS-OF-LIUTPRAND.html |title=THE LAWS OF LIUTPRAND. |author=Third Millennium Library |work=third-millennium-library.com |year=2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005105455/http://www.third-millennium-library.com/MedievalHistory/The-Lombard-Kingdom/10-LAWS-OF-LIUTPRAND.html |archive-date=5 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 
Though still protected by his massive walls, the pope could do little against the Lombard king, who managed to ally himself with the Byzantines.<ref name="Third Millennium Library X">{{cite web |url=http://www.third-millennium-library.com/History-of-the-Popes/TEMPORAL-SOVEREIGNTY-OF-THE-POPES/1-KING-LIUTPRAND.html |title=THE SITUATION IN THE TIME OF KING LIUTPRAND |author=Third Millennium Library |work=third-millennium-library.com |year=2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005105517/http://www.third-millennium-library.com/History-of-the-Popes/TEMPORAL-SOVEREIGNTY-OF-THE-POPES/1-KING-LIUTPRAND.html |archive-date=5 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other protectors were now needed. 
Gregory III was the first Pope to ask for concrete help from the Frankish Kingdom, then under the command of [[Charles Martel]] (739).<ref>from Oliver J. Thatcher, and Edgar Holmes McNeal, eds., A Source Book for Medieval History, (New York: Scribners, 1905), p. 102</ref>

Liutprand's successor [[Aistulf]] was even more aggressive. He conquered [[Ferrara]] and [[Ravenna]], ending the Exarchate of Ravenna. Rome seemed his next victim. In 754, [[Pope Stephen II]] went to France to name [[Pepin the Short|Pippin the Younger]], king of the [[Franks]], as ''patricius romanorum'', i.e. protector of Rome. In the August of that year the King and Pope together crossed back the Alps and defeated Aistulf at [[Pavia]]. When Pippin went back to St. Denis however, Aistulf did not keep his promises, and in 756 besieged Rome for 56&nbsp;days. The Lombards returned north when they heard news of Pippin again moving to Italy. This time he agreed to give the Pope the promised territories, and the [[Papal States]] were born.

In 771 the new King of the Lombards, [[Desiderius]], devised a plot to conquer Rome and seize [[Pope Stephen III]] during a feigned pilgrimage within its walls. His main ally was one Paulus Afiarta, chief of the Lombard party within the city. He conquered Rome in 772 but angered Charlemagne. However the plan failed, and Stephens' successor, [[Pope Adrian I|Pope Hadrian I]] called [[Charlemagne]] against Desiderius, who was finally defeated in 773.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Einhard: The Life of Charlemagne |publisher=Fordham.edu |access-date=23 July 2015}}</ref> The Lombard Kingdom was no more, and now Rome entered into the orbit of a new, greater political institution.

Numerous remains from this period, along with a museum devoted to Medieval Rome, can be seen at [[Museo Nazionale Romano Crypta Balbi|Crypta Balbi]] in Rome.

===Formation of the Holy Roman Empire===
{{Further|Papal States|Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)}}
[[File:Sylvester I and Constantine.jpg|thumb|right|A 13th-century fresco of Sylvester and Constantine, showing the [[Donation of Constantine]], [[Santi Quattro Coronati]], Rome]]
[[File:Basilica di San Pietro 1450.jpg|thumb|19th-century drawing of [[Old Saint Peter's Basilica]] as it is thought to have looked around 1450&nbsp;AD]]
[[File:Forum temple of vespasian.jpg|thumb|From the Forum, the medieval and Renaissance Senate House stands directly upon the [[Tabularium]], ancient Rome's repository of archives.]]

On 25 April 799 the new Pope, [[Pope Leo III|Leo III]], led the traditional procession from the [[Lateran]] to the Church of [[San Lorenzo in Lucina]] along the [[Via Flaminia]] (now [[Via del Corso]]). Two nobles (followers of his predecessor Hadrian) who disliked the weakness of the Pope with regards to Charlemagne, attacked the processional train and delivered a life-threatening wound to the Pope. Leo fled to the King of the Franks, and in November, 800, the King entered Rome with a strong army and a number of French bishops. He declared a judicial trial to decide if Leo III were to remain Pope, or if the deposers' claims had reasons to be upheld. This trial, however, was only a part of a well thought out chain of events which ultimately surprised the world. The Pope was declared legitimate and the attempters subsequently exiled. On 25 December 800, [[Pope Leo III]] crowned Charlemagne [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in [[St. Peter's Basilica]].

This act forever severed the loyalty of [[Rome]] from its imperial progenitor, [[Constantinople]]. It created instead a rival empire which, after a long series of conquests by [[Charlemagne]], now encompassed most of the Christian Western territories.

Following the death of Charlemagne, the lack of a figure with equal prestige led the new institution into disagreement. At the same time the universal [[Catholic Church|church]] of Rome had to face emergence of the lay interests of the City itself, spurred on by the conviction that the Roman people, though impoverished and abased, had again the right to elect the Western Emperor. The famous counterfeit document called the ''[[Donation of Constantine]]'', prepared by the Papal notaries, guaranteed to the Pope a dominion<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/donatconst.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook: The Donation of Constantine |publisher=Fordham.edu |access-date=22 December 2008}}</ref><ref>In many manuscripts, including the oldest one, which dates from the 9th century, the document bears the title ''Constitutum domini Constantini imperatoris''.{{CathEncy|wstitle=Donation of Constantine}}</ref> stretching from [[Ravenna]] to [[Gaeta]]. This nominally included the suzerainty over Rome, but this was often highly disputed, and as the centuries passed, only the strongest Popes were to be able to assert it. The main element of weakness of the Papacy within the walls of the city was the continued necessity of the election of new popes, in which the emerging noble families soon managed to insert a leading role for themselves. The neighbouring powers, namely the [[Duchy of Spoleto]] and [[Tuscany|Toscana]], and later the Emperors, learned how to take their own advantage of this internal weakness, playing the role of arbiters among the contestants.

Rome was indeed prey of anarchy in this age. The lowest point was touched in 897, when a raging crowd [[exhume]]d the corpse of a dead pope, [[Pope Formosus|Formosus]], and [[Cadaver Synod|put it on trial]].<ref name="Georgia Law">{{cite web |url=http://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1045&context=fac_pm |title=The Cadaver Synod: Strangest Trial in History|first=Donald E. |last=Wilkes Jr. |work=digitalcommons.law.uga.edu |year=2011}}</ref><ref>"Nor was he [[Pope Sergius III|Sergius III]] content with thus dishonouring the dead [[Pope Formosus]], but he drags his carcass again out of the grave, beheads it as if it had been alive, and then throws it into the Tiber, as unworthy the honour of human burial." {{Cite book|last= Platina|first= Bartolomeo|author-link= Bartolomeo Platina|title= The Lives of the Popes From The Time of Our Saviour Jesus Christ to the Accession of Gregory VII|publisher= Griffith Farran & Co.|location= London|page= 243|volume= I|url= https://archive.org/details/thelivesofthepop01platuoft|access-date=8 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://cfpeople.org/Books/Pope/POPEp120.htm#T1|title=Sergius III|last=Brusher|first=Joseph|publisher=Neff-Kane|year=1959|journal=Popes Through the Ages|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112051806/http://www.cfpeople.org/books/pope/POPEp120.htm#T1|archive-date=12 January 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last= Milman|first= Henry Hart|author-link= Henry Hart Milman|title= History of Latin Christianity|publisher= John Murray|year= 1867|location= London|pages= 287–290|volume= III|edition= 4th}}</ref>

===Roman Commune===
{{See also|Commune of Rome|14 regions of Medieval Rome}}

From 1048 to 1257, the papacy experienced increasing conflict with the leaders and churches of the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. The latter culminated in the East-West Schism, dividing the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. From 1257 to 1377, the pope, though the bishop of Rome, resided in Viterbo, Orvieto, and Perugia, and then Avignon. The return of the popes to Rome after the Avignon Papacy was followed by the Western Schism: the division of the western church between two, and for a time three, competing papal claimants.

In this period the renovated [[Catholic Church|Church]] was again attracting pilgrims and [[prelate]]s from all the Christian world, and money with them: even with a population of only 30,000, Rome was again becoming a city of consumers dependent upon the presence of a governmental bureaucracy. In the meantime, Italian cities were acquiring increasing autonomy, mainly led by new families which were replacing the old aristocracy with a new class formed by entrepreneurs, traders and merchants. After the sack of Rome by the [[Italo-Norman|Normans]] in 1084, the rebuilding of the city was supported by powerful families such as the [[Frangipani family|Frangipane family]] and the [[Pierleoni family]], whose wealth came from commerce and banking rather than landholdings. Inspired by neighbouring cities like [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]] and [[Viterbo]], Rome's people began to consider adopting a communal status and gaining a substantial amount of freedom from papal authority.

Led by [[Giordano Pierleoni]], the Romans rebelled against the aristocracy and Church rule in 1143. The Senate and the Roman Republic, the [[Commune of Rome]], were born again. Through the inflammatory words of preacher [[Arnold of Brescia|Arnaldo da Brescia]], an idealistic, fierce opponent of ecclesiastical property and church interference in temporal affairs, the revolt that led to the creation of the [[Commune of Rome]] continued until it was put down in 1155, though it left its mark on the civil government of the Eternal City for centuries. 12th-century Rome, however, had little in common with the empire which had ruled over the Mediterranean some 700&nbsp;years before, and soon the new Senate had to work hard to survive, choosing an ambiguous policy of shifting its support from the Pope to the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and vice versa as the political situation required. At [[Battle of Monte Porzio|Monteporzio]], in 1167, during one of these shifts, in the war with Tusculum, Roman troops were defeated by the imperial forces of [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]]. Luckily, the winning enemies were soon dispersed by a plague and Rome was saved.

[[File:Santa Maria in Trastevere-inside.jpg|thumb|220px|Interior of the basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere, one of the most beautiful Roman churches built or re-built in the Middle Ages]]

In 1188 the new communal government was finally recognised by [[Pope Clement III]]. The Pope had to make large cash payments to the communal officials, while the 56 senators became papal vassals. The Senate always had problems in the accomplishment of its function, and various changes were tried. Often a single Senator was in charge. This sometimes led to tyrannies, which did not help the stability of the newborn organism.

===Guelphs and Ghibellines===
{{Further|Guelphs and Ghibellines}}
In 1204 the streets of Rome were again in flames when the struggle between [[Pope Innocent III|Pope Innocent III's]] family and its rivals, the powerful [[Orsini family]], led to riots in the city. Many ancient buildings were then destroyed by machines used by the rival bands to besiege their enemies in the innumerable towers and strongholds which were a hallmark of the Middle Age Italian towns.

[[File:0209tordeiconti.png|thumb|left|220px|The [[Torre dei Conti]] was one of the many towers built by the noble families of Rome to mark their power and defend themselves in the several feuds that marked the city in the Middle Ages. Only the lower third part of Torre dei Conti can be seen today.]]

The struggle between the Popes and the emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], also king of [[Naples]] and [[Sicily]], saw Rome support the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Ghibelline]]s. To repay his loyalty, Frederick sent to the commune the [[Carroccio]] he had won to the [[Lombardy|Lombards]] at the [[battle of Cortenuova]] in 1234, and which was exposed in the [[Capitoline Hill|Campidoglio]].

In that year, during another revolt against the Pope, the Romans headed by senator [[Luca Savelli]] sacked the [[Lateran]]. Curiously, Savelli was the nephew of [[Pope Honorius III]] and father of [[Pope Honorius IV|Honorius IV]], but in that age family ties often did not determine one's allegiance.

Rome was never to evolve into an autonomous, stable reign, as happened to other communes like [[Florence]], [[Siena]] or [[Milan]]. The endless struggles between noble families ([[Savelli family|Savelli]], [[Orsini family|Orsini]], [[Colonna family|Colonna]], [[Annibaldi family|Annibaldi]]), the ambiguous position of the Popes, the haughtiness of a population which never abandoned the dreams of their splendid past but, at the same time, thought only of immediate advantage, and the weakness of the republican institutions always deprived the city of this possibility.

In an attempt to imitate more successful communes, in 1252 the people elected a foreign Senator, the [[Bologna|Bolognese]] [[Brancaleone degli Andalò]]. In order to bring peace in the city he suppressed the most powerful nobles (destroying some 140 towers), reorganised the working classes and issued a code of laws inspired by those of northern Italy. Brancaleone was a tough figure, but died in 1258 with almost nothing of his reforms turned into reality. Five years later [[Charles I of Naples|Charles I of Anjou]], then king of [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], was elected Senator. He entered the city only in 1265, but soon his presence was needed to face [[Conradin]], the [[House of Hohenstaufen|Hohenstaufen]]'s heir who was coming to claim his family's rights over southern Italy, and left the city. After June 1265 Rome was again a democratic republic, electing [[Henry of Castile the Senator|Henry of Castile]] as senator. But Conradin and the Ghibelline party were crushed in the [[Battle of Tagliacozzo]] (1268), and therefore Rome fell again in the hands of Charles.

[[Pope Nicholas III|Nicholas III]], a member of [[Orsini family]], was elected in 1277 and moved the seat of the [[List of popes|Popes]] from the [[Lateran Palace|Lateran]] to the more defensible [[Vatican City|Vatican]]. He also ordered that no foreigner could become senator of Rome. Being a Roman himself, he had himself elected senator by the people. With this move, the city began again to side for the papal party. In 1285 Charles was again Senator, but the [[Sicilian Vespers]] reduced his charisma, and the city was thenceforth free from his authority. The next senator was again a Roman, and again a pope, [[Pope Honorius IV|Honorius IV]] of the Savelli.

===Boniface VIII and the Babylonian captivity===
The successor to [[Pope Celestine V|Celestine V]] was a Roman of the Caetani family, [[Pope Boniface VIII|Boniface VIII]]. Entangled in a local feud against the traditional rivals of his family, the [[Colonna family|Colonna]], at the same time he struggled to assure the universal supremacy of the [[Holy See]]. In 1300 he launched the first [[Jubilee (Christian)|Jubilee]] and in 1303 founded the [[Sapienza University of Rome|first University of Rome]].<ref name="Sapienza University">{{cite web |url=http://www2.uniroma1.it/about/default_e.php |title=Sapienza &gt; About us |author=Sapienza University of Rome |work=www2.uniroma1.it |year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Catholic Encyclopaedia 4">{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08531c.htm |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA: Holy Year of Jubilee |author=Catholic Encyclopaedia |work=newadvent.org |year=2009}}</ref> The Jubilee was an important move for Rome, as it further increased its international prestige and, most of all, the city's economy was boosted by the flow of pilgrims.<ref name="Catholic Encyclopaedia 4"/> Boniface died in 1303 after the humiliation of the ''[[Anagni|Schiaffo di Anagni]]'' ("Slap of Anagni"), which signalled instead the rule of the [[France|King of France]] over the [[Pope|Papacy]] and marked another period of decline for Rome.<ref name="Catholic Encyclopaedia 4"/><ref name="ChristianChronicler">{{cite web |url=http://www.christianchronicler.com/history1/avignon_papacy.html |title=THE AVIGNON PAPACY |last=ChristianChronicler.com |work=christianchronicler.com |year=2006}}</ref>

Boniface's successor, [[Pope Clement V|Clement V]], never entered the city, starting the so-called "[[Avignon Papacy|Babylonian captivity]]", the absence of the Popes from their Roman seat in favour of [[Avignon]], which would last for more than 70&nbsp;years.<ref name="ChristianChronicler"/><ref name="Morris">Morris, Colin, ''The papal monarchy: the Western church from 1050 to 1250 '', (Oxford University Press, 2001), 271.</ref> This situation brought the independence of the local powers, but these were revealed to be largely unstable; and the lack of the holy revenues caused a deep decay of Rome.<ref name="ChristianChronicler"/><ref name="Morris"/> For more than a century Rome had no new major buildings. Furthermore, many of the monuments of the city, including the main churches, began to fall into ruin.<ref name="ChristianChronicler"/>

===Cola di Rienzo and the Pope's return to Rome===
[[File:Piazza del Campidoglio.jpg|thumb|Cola di Rienzo stormed the Capitoline Hill in 1347 to create a new Roman Republic. Though short-lived, his attempt is recorded by a 19th-century statue near the ramped ''[[Cordonata]]'' leading to Michelangelo's [[Capitoline Hill|Piazza del Campidoglio]].]]

In spite of its decline and the absence of the Pope, Rome had not lost its spiritual prestige: in 1341 the famous poet [[Petrarch|Petrarca]] came to the city to be crowned as [[Poet laureate]] in [[Capitoline Hill]]. Noblemen and poor people at one time demanded with one voice the return of the Pope. Among the many ambassadors that in this period took their way to [[Avignon]], emerged the bizarre but eloquent figure of [[Cola di Rienzo]]. As his personal power among the people increased by time, on 20 May 1347 he conquered the Capitoline at the head of an enthusiastic crowd. The period of his power, though very short-lived, aspired to the prestige of Ancient Rome. Now in possession of dictatorial powers, he took the title of "tribune", referring to the [[plebs|pleb]]'s [[tribune|magistracy]] of the [[Roman Republic]]. Cola also considered himself at an equal status of that of the Holy Roman Emperor. On 1 August, he conferred Roman citizenship on all the Italian cities, and even prepared for the election of a Roman emperor of Italy. It was too much: the Pope denounced him as heretic, criminal and pagan, the populace had begun to be disenchanted with him, while the nobles had always hated him. On 15 December, he was forced to flee.
[[File:CasaDiColadiRienzoByRoeslerFranz.jpg|thumb|150px|left|The so-called ''Casa di Rienzi'' still in its urban context before the opening of the ''Via del Mare'' in a [[watercolour]] by [[Ettore Roesler Franz]] (about 1880).]]
In August 1354, Cola was again a protagonist, when Cardinal [[Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz|Gil Alvarez De Albornoz]] entrusted him with the role of "senator of Rome" in his program of reassuring the Pope's rule in the [[Papal States]]. In October the tyrannical Cola, who had become again very unpopular for his delirious behaviour and heavy bills, was killed in a riot provoked by the powerful family of the [[Colonna family|Colonna]]. In April 1355, [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] of [[Bohemia]] entered the city for the ritual coronation as Emperor. His visit was very disappointing for the citizens. He had little money, received the crown not from the Pope but from a Cardinal, and moved away after a few days.

With the emperor back in his lands, Albornoz could regain a certain control over the city, while remaining in his safe citadel in [[Montefiascone]], in the Northern Lazio. The senators were chosen directly by the Pope from several cities of Italy, but the city was in fact independent. The Senate council included six judges, five notaries, six marshals, several familiars, twenty knights and twenty armed men. Albornoz had heavily suppressed the traditional aristocratic families, and the "democratic" party felt confident enough to start an aggressive policy. In 1362 Rome declared war on [[Velletri]]. This move, however, provoked a civil war. The countryside party hired a [[condottieri]] band called "Del Cappello" ("Hat"), while the Romans bought the services of [[Germany|German]] and [[Hungary|Hungarian]] troops, plus a citizen levy of 600 knights and even 22,000 infantry. This was the period in which condottieri bands were active in Italy. Many of the Savelli, Orsini and Annibaldi expelled from Rome became leaders of such military units. The war with Velletri languished, and Rome again gave itself to the new Pope, [[Pope Urban V|Urban V]], provided Albornoz did not enter the walls.

On 16 October 1367, in reply to the prayers of [[Brigid of Kildare|St Brigid]] and [[Petrarch|Petrarca]], Urban finally visited for the city. During his presence, [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] was again crowned in the city (October 1368). In addition, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine emperor]] [[John V Palaiologos|John V Palaeologus]] came in Rome to beg for a crusade against the [[Ottoman Empire]], but in vain. However, Urban did not like the unhealthy air of the city, and on 5 September 1370 he sailed again to [[Avignon]]. His successor, [[Pope Gregory XI|Gregory XI]], officially set the date of his return to Rome at May 1372, but again the [[France|French]] cardinals and the King stopped him.

Only on 17 January 1377, Gregory XI could finally reinstate the [[Holy See]] in Rome.

===Western schism and conflict with Milan===
The incoherent behaviour of his successor, the Italian [[Pope Urban VI|Urban VI]], provoked in 1378 the [[Western Schism]], which impeded any true attempt of improving the conditions of the decaying Rome.
The 14th century, with the absence of the popes during the [[Avignon Papacy]], had been a century of neglect and misery for the city of Rome, which dropped to its lowest level of population. 
With the return of the papacy to Rome repeatedly postponed because of the bad conditions of the city and the lack of control and security, it was first necessary to strengthen the political and doctrinal aspects of the pontiff.

When in 1377 [[Gregory XI]] was in fact returned to Rome, he found a city in anarchy because of the struggles between the nobility and the popular faction, and in which his power was now more formal than real. There followed four decades of instability, characterised by the local power struggle between the commune and the papacy, and internationally by the great [[Western Schism]], at the end of which was elected Pope, [[Martin V]]. He restored order, laying the foundations of its rebirth.<ref>Ludovico Gatto, ''History of Rome in the Middle Ages'', Rome, Newton & Compton, 1999. {{ISBN|88-8289-273-5}}</ref>
[[File:Lightmatter Sistine Chapel ceiling.jpg|thumb|left|[[Michelangelo]]'s ceiling in the [[Sistine Chapel]].]]

In 1433 the [[List of rulers of Milan|Duke of Milan]], [[Filippo Maria Visconti]] signed a peace treaty with [[Florence]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]]. He then sent the [[condottieri]] [[Niccolò Fortebraccio]] and [[Francesco I Sforza|Francesco Sforza]] to harass the [[Papal States]], in vengeance for [[Pope Eugene IV|Eugene IV]]'s support to the two former republics.

Fortebraccio, supported by the [[Colonna family|Colonna]], occupied Tivoli in October 1433 and ravaged Rome's countryside. Despite the concessions made by Eugene to the Visconti, the Milanese soldiers did not stop their destruction. This led the Romans, on 29 May 1434 to institute a Republican government under the ''Banderesi''. Eugene left the city a few days later, during the night of 4 June.

However, the ''Banderesi'' proved incapable of governing the city, and their inadequacies and violence soon deprived them of popular support. The city was therefore returned to Eugene by the army of [[Giovanni Vitelleschi]] on 26 October 1434. After the death in mysterious circumstances of Vitelleschi, the city came under the control of [[Ludovico Scarampo]], [[List of bishops and patriarchs of Aquileia|Patriarch of Aquileia]]. Eugene returned to Rome on 28 September 1443.

==Renaissance Rome==

{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; width:300px; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:White; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Rome Timeline</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"|'''Renaissance and early modern Rome'''
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|c. 1420s–1519
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Rome becomes a centre of the [[Roman Renaissance|Renaissance]]. Founding of the new [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. [[Sistine Chapel]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1527
|style="font-size: 90%;"|The [[Landsknecht]]s [[Sack of Rome (1527)|sack Rome]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1555
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Creation of the [[Ghetto]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1585–1590
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Urban reforms under [[Pope Sixtus V]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1592–1606
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Caravaggio]] working in Rome.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1600
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Giordano Bruno]] is burned.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1626
|style="font-size: 90%;"|The new [[St. Peter's Basilica]] is consecrated.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1638–1667
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Baroque]] era. [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini|Bernini]] and [[Francesco Borromini|Borromini]]. Rome has 120,000 inhabitants.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1703
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Building of the Port of Ripetta.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|1732–1762
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Building of the [[Trevi Fountain|Fontana di Trevi]].
|}

{{Main|Roman Renaissance}}

The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the [[Italian Renaissance]] move to Rome from [[Florence]]. The Papacy wanted to surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities. To this end the popes created increasingly extravagant churches, bridges, town squares and public spaces, including a new [[St. Peter's Basilica|Saint Peter's Basilica]], the [[Sistine Chapel]], ''[[Ponte Sisto]]'' (the first bridge to be built across the [[Tiber River|Tiber]] since antiquity), and [[Piazza Navona]]. The Popes were also patrons of the arts engaging such artists as [[Michelangelo]], [[Pietro Perugino|Perugino]], [[Raphael]], [[Domenico Ghirlandaio|Ghirlandaio]], [[Luca Signorelli]], [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]], and [[Cosimo Rosselli]].

Under [[Pope Nicholas V]], who became Pontiff on 19 March 1447, the [[Renaissance]] can be said to have begun in Rome, heralding a period in which the city became the centre of [[Humanism]]. He was the first Pope to embellish the Roman court with scholars and artists, including [[Lorenzo Valla]] and [[Vespasiano da Bisticci]].

On 4 September 1449 Nicholas proclaimed a [[Jubilee (Christianity)|Jubilee]] for the following year, which saw a great influx of pilgrims from all Europe. The crowd was so large that in December, on [[Ponte Sant'Angelo]], some 200 people died, crushed underfoot or drowned in the [[River Tiber]]. Later that year the [[Plague (disease)|Plague]] reappeared in the city, and Nicholas fled.

[[File:Roma1493.png|thumb|left|300px|View of Rome in 1493]]

However Nicholas brought stability to the temporal power of the Papacy, a power in which the Emperor was to have no part at all. In this way, the coronation and the marriage of [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]] on 16 March 1452, was more a civil ceremony. The Papacy now controlled Rome with a strong hand. A plot by [[Stefano Porcari]], whose aim was the restoration of the Republic, was ruthlessly suppressed on January 1453. Porcari was hanged together with the other plotters, Francesco Gabadeo, Pietro de Monterotondo, Battista Sciarra and Angiolo Ronconi, but the Pope gained a treacherous reputation, as when the execution was beginning he was too drunk to confirm the grace he had previously given to Sciarra and Ronconi.

Nicholas was also actively involved in Rome's urban renewal, in collaboration with [[Leon Battista Alberti]], including the construction of a new [[St. Peter's Basilica|St Peter's Basilica]].
[[File:St. Peter Niccoline Chapel.jpg|thumb|right|A painting from the [[Roman Renaissance]].]]
Nicholas' successor [[Pope Callixtus III|Calixtus III]] neglected Nicholas's cultural policies, instead devoting himself to his greatest passion, his nephews. The [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] [[Pope Pius II|Pius II]], who took the reins after his death in 1458, was a great Humanist, but did little for Rome. During his reign [[Lorenzo Valla]] demonstrated that the [[Donation of Constantine]] was a forgery. Pius was the first Pope to use guns, in campaign against the rebel barons Savelli in the neighbourhood of Rome, in 1461. One year later the bringing to Rome of the head of the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostle]] [[Saint Andrew|St. Andrew]] produced a great number of pilgrims. The reign of [[Pope Paul II]] (1464–1471) was notable only for the reintroduction of the [[Carnival]], which was to become a very popular feast in Rome in the following centuries. In the same year (1468) a plot against the Pope was uncovered, organised by the intellectuals of the [[Roman Academies|Roman Academy]] founded by [[Julius Pomponius Laetus|Pomponio Leto]]. The conspirators were sent to Castel Sant'Angelo.

[[File:Roma-tempiettobramante01R.jpg|left|thumb|upright|The ''Tempietto'' ([[San Pietro in Montorio]]), an excellent example of [[Italian Renaissance]] architecture]]

More important by far was the Pontificate of [[Pope Sixtus IV|Sixtus IV]], considered the first Pope-King of Rome. In order to favour his relative [[Girolamo Riario]], he promoted the unsuccessful [[Pazzi|Congiura dei Pazzi]] against the [[House of Medici|Medici]] of Florence (26 April 1478) and in Rome fought the [[Colonna family|Colonna]] and the [[Orsini family|Orsini]]. The personal politics of intrigue and war required much money, but in spite of this Sixtus was a true patron of art in the manner of [[Pope Nicholas V|Nicholas V]]. He reopened the Academy and reorganised the Collegio degli Abbreviatori, and in 1471 began the construction of the [[Vatican Library]], whose first curator was Platina. The Library was officially founded on 15 June 1475. He restored several churches, including [[Santa Maria del Popolo]], the [[Aqua Virgo]] and the Hospital of the Holy Spirit; paved several streets and also built a famous bridge over the [[Tiber]] river, which still bears his name. His main building project was the [[Sistine Chapel]] in the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican Palace]]. Its decoration called on some of the most renowned artists of the age, including [[Mino da Fiesole]], [[Sandro Botticelli]], [[Domenico Ghirlandaio]], [[Pietro Perugino]], [[Luca Signorelli]] and [[Pinturicchio]], and in the 16th century [[Michelangelo]] decorated the ceiling with his famous masterpiece, contributing to what became one of the most famous monuments of the world. Sixtus died on 12 August 1484.

Chaos, corruption and nepotism appeared in Rome under the reign of his successors, [[Pope Innocent VIII|Innocent VIII]] and [[Pope Alexander VI]] (1492–1503). During the vacation period between the death of the former and the election of the latter there were 220 murders in the city. Alexander had to face [[Charles VIII of France]], who invaded Italy in 1494 and entered Rome on 31 December of that year. The Pope could only barricade himself into [[Castel Sant'Angelo]], which had been turned into a true fortress by [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]]. In the end, the skilful Alexander was able to gain the support of the king, assigning his son [[Cesare Borgia]] as military counsellor for the subsequent invasion of the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. Rome was safe and, as the King directed himself southwards, the Pope again changed his position, joining the anti-French League of the Italian States which finally compelled Charles to flee to France.

The most nepotist Pope of all, Alexander, favoured his ruthless son Cesare, creating for him a personal [[Duchy]] out of territories of the [[Papal States]], and banning from Rome Cesare's most relentless enemy, the Orsini family. In 1500 the city hosted a new Jubilee, but grew ever more unsafe as, especially at night, the streets were controlled by bands of lawless "bravi". Cesare himself assassinated [[Alfonso of Bisceglie]]; as well as, presumably, the Pope's son, Giovanni of Gandia.

The Renaissance had a great impact on Rome's appearance, with works like the ''[[Pietà]]'' by Michelangelo and the frescoes of the [[Borgia Apartment]], all made during Innocent's reign. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under [[Pope Julius II]] (1503–1513) and his successors [[Pope Leo X|Leo X]] and [[Pope Clement VII|Clement VII]], both members of the Medici family. During this twenty-year period Rome became the greatest centre of art in the world. The old [[St. Peter's Basilica]] was demolished and a new one begun. The city hosted artists like [[Donato Bramante|Bramante]], who built the Temple of [[San Pietro in Montorio]] and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican; [[Raphael]], who in Rome became the most famous painter in Italy, creating frescos in the [[Niccoline Chapel|Cappella Niccolina]], the [[Villa Farnesina]], the [[Raphael Rooms|Raphael's Rooms]], and many other famous paintings. Michelangelo began the decoration of the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]] and executed the famous statue of [[Moses (Michelangelo)|Moses]] for the tomb of Julius. Rome lost in part its religious character, becoming increasingly a true Renaissance city, with a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues and licentious episodes. Its economy was prosperous, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including [[Agostino Chigi]], a friend of Raphael and a patron of the arts. Despite his premature death, and to his eternal credit, [[Raphael]] also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins.

===Sack of Rome (1527)===
[[File:Sack of Rome of 1527 by Johannes Lingelbach 17th century.jpg|thumb|300px|left|''The sack of Rome'' in 1527, by [[Johannes Lingelbach]], 17th century.]]
In 1527 the ambiguous policy followed by the second [[House of Medici|Medici]] Pope, [[Pope Clement VII]], resulted in the dramatic [[Sack of Rome (1527)|sack]] of the city by the unruly [[Holy Roman Empire|Imperial]] troops of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]]. After the execution of some 1,000 defenders, the pillage began.<ref name="Seattle Catholic">{{cite web |url=http://www.seattlecatholic.com/article_20040427.html |title=Seattle Catholic – The Sack of Rome: 1527, 1776 |author=Seattle Catholic |work=seattlecatholic.com |year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umbc.edu/history/CHE/techerpages/Eppard/teachernotes.html |title=History department – UMBC |publisher=Umbc.edu |access-date=23 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115043534/http://www.umbc.edu/history/CHE/techerpages/Eppard/teachernotes.html |archive-date=15 January 2009}}</ref> The city was devastated for several days, many of the citizens were killed or took shelter outside the walls. Of 189 [[Swiss Guard]]s on duty only 42 survived.<ref name="Seattle Catholic"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Fraser |first=Christian |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4630898.stm |title=Europe {{pipe}} Pope's guards celebrate 500 years |work=BBC News |date=22 January 2006}}</ref> The Pope himself was imprisoned for months in [[Castel Sant'Angelo]]. The sack marked the end of one of the most splendid eras of modern Rome.<ref name="Seattle Catholic"/><ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/508807/Rome/23927/Evolution-of-the-modern-city#ref387739 |title=Rome (Italy) :: Evolution of the modern city – Britannica Online Encyclopaedia |author=Encyclopædia Britannica|encyclopedia=britannica.com |year=2011}}</ref>

The 1525's Jubilee resulted in a farce, as [[Martin Luther]]'s claims had spread criticism and even hatred against the Pope's greed throughout Europe. The prestige of Rome was then challenged by the defections of the churches of Germany and England. [[Pope Paul III]] (1534–1549) tried to recover the situation by summoning the [[Council of Trent]]o, although being, at the same time, the most nepotist Pope of all. He even separated [[Parma]] and [[Piacenza]] from the [[Papal States]] to create an independent [[Duchy of Parma|duchy]] for his son [[Pier Luigi Farnese, Duke of Parma|Pier Luigi]].<ref name="Seattle Catholic"/> He continued the patronage of art supporting the Michelangelo's ''[[Last Judgment]]'', asking him to renovate the [[Capitoline Hill|Campidoglio]] and the ongoing construction of [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's]]. After the shock of the sack, he also called the brilliant architect [[Giuliano da Sangallo|Giuliano da Sangallo the Younger]] to strengthen the walls of the [[Leonine City]].<ref name="Seattle Catholic"/>

The need for renovation in the religious customs became evident in the vacancy period after Paulus' death, when the streets of Rome became seat of masked carousels which satirised the Cardinals attending the [[Papal conclave|conclave]]. His two immediate successors were feeble figures who did nothing to escape the actual Spanish suzerainty over Rome.<ref name="Seattle Catholic"/>

===Counter-Reformation===
[[Pope Paul IV]], elected in 1555, was a member of the anti-Spanish party in the [[Italian War of 1551–59]], but his policy resulted in the [[Kingdom of Naples|Neapolitan]] troops of the viceroy again besieging Rome in 1556. 
Paul sued for peace, but had to accept the supremacy of [[Philip II of Spain]].<ref name="Seattle Catholic"/> He was one of the most hated Popes of all, and, after his death the raging populace burned the [[Inquisition|Holy Inquisition]]'s palace and destroyed his marble statue on the Campidoglio.<ref name="Catholic Encyclopaedia2">{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11581a.htm |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA: Pope Paul IV |author=Catholic Encyclopaedia |work=newadvent.org |year=2009}}</ref><ref name="NNDB">{{cite web |url=http://www.nndb.com/people/300/000095015/ |title=Pope Paul IV |last=NNDB.com |work=nndb.com |year=2011}}</ref>

Pope Paul's [[Counter-Reformation]] views are well shown by his order that a central area of Rome, around the ''[[Porticus Octaviae]]'', be delimited, creating the famous [[Roman Ghetto]], the very constricted area in which the city's [[Jew]]s were forced to live in seclusion. They had to remain in the [[rioni of Rome|rione]] [[Sant'Angelo (rione of Rome)|Sant'Angelo]] and locked in at night. The Pope decreed that Jews should wear a distinctive sign, yellow hats for men<ref>Frank J. Coppa, ''The papacy, the Jews, and the Holocaust'', p. 29</ref> and veils or shawls for women. Jewish [[ghetto]]s existed in Europe for the next 315&nbsp;years.

The [[Counter-Reformation]] gained pace under his successors, the milder [[Pope Pius IV]] and the severe [[Pope Pius V|Saint Pius V]]. The former was a nepotist lover of court splendours, but more severe customs arrived anyway through the ideas of his advisor, the prelate [[Charles Borromeo]], who was to become one of the most popular figures among the Rome's people. Pius V and Borromeo gave Rome a true Counter-Reformation character. All pomp was removed from the court, the jokers were expelled, and cardinals and bishops were obliged to live in the city. Blasphemy and concubinage were severely punished. Prostitutes were expelled or confined in a reserved district. The Inquisition's power in the city was reasserted, and its palace rebuilt with an increased space for prisons. During this period Michelangelo opened the [[Porta Pia]] and turned the [[Baths of Diocletian]] into the spectacular basilica of [[Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri]], where Pius IV was buried. The expression of [[mannerism]] was meticulously widespread with [[Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola|Vignola]], for civil and religious buildings in Rome and throughout the [[Papal States]], his masterpieces, even before the [[Church of the Gesù]] (1568), became villas such as [[Villa Giulia]] and [[Villa Farnese]].{{sfn|Tantillo|2017}}

The pontificate of his successor, [[Pope Gregory XIII|Gregory XIII]], was considered a failure. As he tried to use milder measures than those of St. Pius, the worst element of the Roman population felt free to scourge again the streets. The French writer and philosopher [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]] maintained that "life and goods were never as unsure as at the time of Gregorius XIII, perhaps", and that a confraternity even held [[same-sex marriage]] in the church of [[San Giovanni a Porta Latina]]. The courtesans repressed by Pius had now returned.

[[Pope Sixtus V|Sixtus V]] was of very different temper. Although short (1585–1590), his reign however remembered as one of the most effective in the modern Rome's history. He was even tougher than Pius V, and was variously nicknamed ''castigamatti'' ("punisher of the mad"), ''papa di ferro'' ("Iron Pope"), ''dictator'' and even, ironically, ''demon'', since no other Pope before him pursued with such a determination the reform of the church and the customs. Sixtus profoundly reorganised the Papal States' administration, and cleaned the streets of Rome of thugs, procurers, dueling and so on. Even the nobles and Cardinals could not consider themselves free from the arms of Sixtus' police. The money from taxes, which were not now wasted in corruption, permitted an ambitious building program. Some ancient aqueducts were restored, and new one, the [[Acquedotto Felice]] (from Sixtus' name, Felice Peretti) was constructed. 
New houses were built in the desolate district of [[Esquiline Hill|Esquilino]], [[Viminal Hill|Viminale]] and [[Quirinal Palace|Quirinale]], while old houses in the centre of the city were destroyed to open new, larger streets. 
Sixtus's principal aim was to make Rome a better destination for [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimages]], and the new streets were intended to permit a better access to the major Basilicas. Old obelisks were moved or erected to embellish St. John in Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Peter, as well as Piazza del Popolo, in front of Santa Maria del Popolo.

===Baroque period===
[[File:Roma Piazza Navona 17c.jpg|thumb|[[Piazza Navona]] (17th century)]]
[[File:View of Rome Roma 1688 stitched.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Rome from ''Topographia Italiae'', published by [[Matthaeus Merian]]'s heirs in 1688.]]

In the 18th century, the Papacy reached the peak of its temporal power, the Papal States including most of Central Italy, including Latium, Umbria, Marche and the Legations of Ravenna, Ferrara and Bologna extending north into the Romagna, as well as the small enclaves of Benevento and Pontecorvo in southern Italy and the larger Comtat Venaissin around Avignon in southern France.

[[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] and [[Rococo]] architecture flourished in Rome, with several famous works being completed. Work on the [[Trevi Fountain]] began in 1732 and was completed in 1762. The [[Spanish Steps]] were designed in 1735. [[Pope Clement XIII]]'s tomb by [[Canova]] was completed in 1792.

The arts also flourished throughout this period. [[Palazzo Nuovo]] became the world's first public museum in 1734 and some of the most famous views of Rome in the 18th century were etched by [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]]. His grand vision of classic Rome inspired many to visit the city and examine the [[ruins]] themselves.

{{Clear}}-->

== Zaman modern ==
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; width:300px; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:White; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Linimasa Roma</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"|'''Roma pada Zaman Modern'''
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1798–1799 dan tahun 1800–1814
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Masa pendudukan [[Kekaisaran Prancis Pertama|Prancis]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1848–1849
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Zaman [[Republik Roma (abad ke-19)|Republik Roma]] bersama [[Giuseppe Mazzini|Mazzini]] dan [[Giuseppe Garibaldi|Garibaldi]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1870
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Roma direbut pasukan [[Italia]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1874–1885
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Pembangunan [[Stasiun kereta api Termini Roma|stasiun Termini]] dan [[Monumen bagi Vittorio Emanuele II|monumen Vittoriano]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1922
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Kirab menuju Roma]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1929
|style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Perjanjian Lateran|Pakta Lateran]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1932–1939
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Pembangunan [[Cinecittà]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1943
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Pengeboman Roma.
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1960
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Roma menjadi tuan rumah [[Olimpiade Musim Panas 1960|Olimpiade Musim Panas]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1975–1985
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Tahun-tahun terorisme. Kematian [[Aldo Moro]]. Penembakan [[Paus Yohanes Paulus II]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 1990
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Rome menjadi salah satu lokasi pertandingan [[Oiala Dunia FIFA 1990|Piala Dunia FIFA]].
|-
|style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"|Tahun 2000
|style="font-size: 90%;"|Roma menjadi tuan rumah perhelatan [[Yubileum dalam Gereja Katolik|Yubileum]].
|}

=== Penyatuan Italia ===
[[File:Rossetti - Proclamazione della Repubblica Romana, nel 1849, in Piazza del Popolo - 1861.jpg|thumb|Proklamasi berdirinya negara Republik Roma pada tahun 1849 di [[Piazza del Popolo]].]]
[[File:Borgo Santo Spirito And St. Peters Dome.jpg|thumb|219x219px|right|Pemandangan kubah [[Basilika Santo Petrus]] dilihat dari ''Borgo [[Santo Spirito in Sassia|Santo Spirito]]'']]
Pada tahun 1870, daerah-daerah kekuasaan Sri Paus terjerumus ke dalam situasi yang tidak menentu manakala kota Roma dianeksasi pasukan pimpinan [[Piemonte]] yang sudah berhasil menyatukan semua daerah lain di Italia, meskipun pasukan kepausan sudah berusaha menunjukkan perlawanan. Antara tahun 1861 sampai 1929, status Sri Paus disebut sebagai "[[Permasalahan Roma]]". Para paus silih berganti naik takhta di istana kepausan tanpa diganggu-gugat, dan beberapa hak prerogatif Sri Paus diakui di dalam [[Undang-Undang Jaminan]], termasuk hak untuk mengutus dan menerima duta-duta besar. Meskipun demikian, para paus tidak mengakui hak pemerintahan Raja Italia atas Roma, dan [[tawanan di Vatikan|menolak meninggalkan lingkungan Vatikan]] sampai sengketa itu diselesaikan pada tahun 1929. Negara-negara lain terus mempertahankan pengakuan internasional akan status Takhta Suci sebagai sebuah negara berdaulat.<!--

Pemerintahan Sri Paus sempat diselingi oleh pemerintahan [[Roman Republic (18th century)|Republik Roma]] (tahun 1798) yang berumur pendek. Pemerintahan republik ini terbentuk di bawah pengaruh [[Revolusi Prancis]]. During [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s reign, Rome was annexed into his empire and was technically part of [[France]]. After the fall of Napoleon's Empire, the Papal States were restored by the [[Congress of Vienna]], with the exception of [[Avignon]] and the [[Comtat Venaissin]], which remained part of France.

Another [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] arose in 1849, within the framework of [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|revolutions of 1848]]. Two of the most influential figures of the [[Italian unification]], [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] and [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], fought for the short-lived republic. However, the actions of these two great men would not have resulted in unification without the sly leadership of [[Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour|Camillo Benso di Cavour]], Prime Minister of [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Piedmont-Sardinia]].

Even among those who wanted to see the peninsula unified into one country, different groups could not agree on what form a unified state would take. [[Vincenzo Gioberti]], a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under rulership of the Pope. His book, ''Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians'', was published in 1843 and created a link between the Papacy and the Risorgimento. Many leading [[Carbonari|revolutionaries]] wanted a republic, but eventually it was a [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|king]] and his [[Count Cavour|chief minister]] who had the power to unite the Italian states as a monarchy.

In his attempt to unify Northern Italy under the [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]], Cavour enacted major industrialisation of the country in order to become the economic leader of Italy. In doing so, he believed that the other states would naturally come under his rule. Next, he sent the army of Piedmont to the [[Crimean War]] to join the French and British. Making minor successes in the war against Russia, cordial relations were established between Piedmont-Sardinia and France; a relationship to be exploited in the future.
[[File:Vista de Roma a partir da Basílica de São Pedro.tif|thumb|Rome from the [[St. Peter's Basilica|Saint Peter's Basilica]], 1901.]]
The return of [[Pope Pius IX]] in Rome, with help of French troops, marked the exclusion of Rome from the unification process that was embodied in the [[Second Italian War of Independence|Second Italian Independence War]] and the [[Expedition of the Thousand|''Mille'' expedition]], after which all the Italian peninsula, except Rome and [[Venetia (region)|Venetia]], would be unified under the [[House of Savoy]]. Garibaldi first attacked Sicily, luckily under the guise of passing British ships and landing with little resistance.

Taking the island, Garibaldi's actions were publicly denounced by Cavour but secretly encouraged via weapons supplements. This policy or real-politik, where the ends justified the means of unification, was continued as Garibaldi faced crossing the Strait of Messina. Cavour privately asked the British navy to allow Garibaldi's troops across the sea while publicly he again, denounced Garibaldi's actions. The maneuver was a success and Garibaldi's military genius carried him on to take the entire kingdom.

Cavour then moved to take Venetia and Lombardy via an alliance with France. The Italians and French together would attack the two states with France getting the city of Nice and the region of Savoy in return. However, the French pulled out of their agreement soon after, enraging Cavour who subsequently resigned. Only Lombardy had been captured at the time.

With French units still stationed at Rome however, Cavour, being called back to office, foresaw a possibility of Garibaldi attacking the Papal States and accidentally disrupting French-Italian relations. The army of Sardinia was therefore mobilised to attack the Papal States but remain outside Rome.

In the Austro-Prussian war however, a deal was made between the new Italy and Prussia, where Italy would attack Austria in return for the region of Venetia. The war was a major success for the Prussians (though the Italians did not win a single battle), and the northern front of Italy was complete.

In July 1870, the [[Franco-Prussian War]] started, and French Emperor [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] could no longer protect the Papal States. Soon after, the Italian army under general [[Raffaele Cadorna]] entered Rome on 20 September, after a cannonade of three hours, through [[Porta Pia]] (see [[capture of Rome]]). The [[Leonine City]] was occupied the following day, a provisional Government Joint created by Cadorna out of local noblemen to avoid the rise of the radical factions. Rome and [[Latium]] were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy after a [[Referendum|plebiscite]] held on 2 October. 133,681 voted for annexion, 1,507 opposed (in Rome itself, there were 40,785 "Yes" and 57 "No").

When Rome was eventually taken, the Italian government reportedly intended to let Pope Pius IX keep the part of Rome, west of the [[Tiber]], known as the [[Leonine City]] as a small remaining Papal State, but Pius IX rejected the offer because acceptance would have been an implied endorsement of the legitimacy of the Italian kingdom's rule over his former domain.<ref>Kertzer, p. 45.</ref> One week after entering Rome, the Italian troops had taken the entire city save for the [[Apostolic Palace]]; the inhabitants of the city then voted to join Italy.<ref>Kertzer, p. 63.</ref> On 1 July 1871, Rome became the official capital of united Italy and from then until June 1929 the popes had no temporal power.

The pope referred to himself during this time as the "[[prisoner of the Vatican]]", although he was not actually restrained from coming and going. Pius IX took steps to ensure self-sufficiency, such as the construction of the [[Vatican Pharmacy]]. Italian nobility who owed their titles to the pope rather than the royal family became known as the [[Black Nobility]] during this period because of their purported mourning.

=== Kerajaan Italia ===
[[File:Porta Pia Pagliari Vizzotto.JPG|thumb|Italian soldiers [[Capture of Rome|enter Rome]] in 1870.]]
Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] with a temporary capital at [[Florence]]. In 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the [[Papal States]] were under the French protection of [[Napoleon III]]. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the [[Franco-Prussian War]], that Italian troops were able to [[Capture of Rome|capture Rome]] entering the city through a breach near [[Porta Pia]]. Afterwards, [[Pope Pius IX]] declared himself as [[prisoner in the Vatican]], and in 1871 the capital of Italy was moved from Florence to Rome.<ref name="Catholic Encyclopaedia">{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12134b.htm |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA: Pope Pius IX |author=Catholic Encyclopaedia |work=newadvent.org |year=2009}}</ref>

Soon after [[World War I]], Rome witnessed the rise to power of [[Italian Fascism]] guided by [[Benito Mussolini]], who, at the request of [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel III]], [[March on Rome|marched]] on the city in 1922, eventually declaring a new [[Italian Colonial Empire|Empire]] and allying Italy with [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="Italy at War ">{{cite web |url=http://comandosupremo.com/mussolini.html |title=Benito Mussolini {{pipe}} Comando Supremo |author=Italy at War |work=comandosupremo.com |year=2011 |quote=Mexican revolutionary Benito Juarez, named his son after the patriot and hero. Benito Mussolini was an avid writer and after he finished his schooling, he became an editor for the Milan socialist paper "Avanti". He became well known among the Italian socialists, but soon started promoting his views for |access-date=11 July 2011}}</ref>

The [[interwar period]] saw a rapid growth in the city's population, that surpassed 1,000,000 inhabitants.<ref name="Population Rome">{{cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/journals/CP/29/2/Population_of_Rome*.html |title=The Population of Rome — CP 29:101‑116 (1934) |first=Whitney J.|last=Oates|work=penelope.uchicago.edu |year=2011 |quote=popula}}</ref>

[[File:Watykan Plac sw Piora kolumnada Berniniego.JPG|thumb|250px|right|[[Istana Apostolik]].]]
This [[Roman Question]] was finally resolved on 11 February 1929 between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy. The [[Lateran Treaty]] was signed by Benito Mussolini on behalf of King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] and by [[Cardinal Secretary of State]] [[Pietro Gasparri]] for [[Pope Pius XI]]. The treaty, which became effective on 7 June 1929, and the Concordat established the independent State of the Vatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-476-2094-17A, Italien, Rom, zerstörtes Gebäude.jpg|right|thumb|Propaganda inscription, "the work of the liberators" (''opera dei liberatori'') on wall of a bombed building, Rome, 1944]]
During [[World War II]], Rome suffered few bombings (notably at [[San Lorenzo fuori le Mura|San Lorenzo]]) and relatively little damage because none of the nations involved wanted to endanger the life of [[Pope Pius XII]] in [[Vatican City]]. There were some bitter fights between Italian and German troops in the south of the city and even in sight of the Colosseum, shortly after the [[armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} On 4 June 1944 Rome became the first capital city of an [[Axis powers|Axis]] nation to fall to the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], but was relatively undamaged because on 14 August 1943, a day after [[bombing of Rome in World War II|the last allied bombing]], the Germans declared it an "[[open city]]" and withdrew, meaning that the Allies did not have to fight their way in.<ref>Döge, p. 651–678</ref><ref name="Battle for Rome">{{cite web |url=http://www.theboot.it/preface_open_city.htm |title=An Excerpt from The Battle for Rome: 'Open City' |first=Robert|last=Katz |work=theboot.it |year=2007}}</ref>

In practice Italy made no attempt to interfere with the Holy See within the Vatican walls. However, they confiscated church property in many other places, including the [[Quirinal Palace]], formerly the pope's [[official residence]]. [[Pope Pius IX]] (1846–78), the last ruler of the Papal States, claimed that after Rome was annexed he was a "[[Prisoner in the Vatican]]".

{{Further|Vatican City during World War II}}
Vatican City officially pursued a policy of neutrality during [[World War II]], under the leadership of [[Pope Pius XII]]. Although the city of Rome was occupied by Germany from 1943 and the Allies from 1944, Vatican City itself was not occupied. One of Pius XII's main diplomatic priorities was to prevent the bombing of Rome; so sensitive was the pontiff that he protested even the British air dropping of pamphlets over Rome, claiming that the few landing within the city-state violated the Vatican's neutrality.<ref>Chadwick, 1988, p. 222</ref> Before the American entry into the war, there was little impetus for such a bombing, as the British saw little strategic value in it.<ref>Chadwick, 1988, pp. 222–32</ref>-->

Sesudah masuknya pasukan Amerika, pemerintah Amerika Serikat menentang pengeboman-pengeboman semacam itu lantaran tidak ingin menyinggung perasaan serdadu-serdadu Amerika yang beragama Katolik, sementara pemerintah Inggris justru mendukungnya.<ref>Chadwick, 1988, pp. 232–36</ref> Paus Pius XII juga menganjurkan pendeklarasian kota Roma sebagai "[[kota terbuka]]", tetapi baru terlaksana pada tanggal 14 Agustus 1943, sesudah Roma dua kali dibombardir.<ref>Chadwick, 1988, pp. 236–44</ref> Meskipun pemerintah Italia meminta sumbang saran Vatikan dalam penyusunan kalimat pendeklarasian Roma menjadi kota terbuka, dorongan ke arah perubahan tersebut hampir-hampir tidak melibatkan Vatikan.<ref>Chadwick, 1988, pp. 244–45</ref>

=== Ibu kota Republik Italia ===
[[File:Roma, vista 04 via del corso.JPG|thumb|Pemandangan [[Via del Corso]] (tahun 2008)]]
[[File:Veduta Aerea EUR 1.jpg|thumb|Pemandangan [[Esposizione Universale Roma|distrik EUR]] (tahun 2003)]]
Seusai perang, Roma tumbuh pesat sebagai salah satu faktor penggerak utama di balik "[[mukjizat ekonomi Italia]]" dari rekonstruksi dan modernisasi pascaperang. Roma menjadi kota yang mengikuti perkembangan mode pada dasawarsa 1950-an dan awal dasawarsa 1960s-an, yakni tahun-tahun "la dolce vita" (hidup nikmat), manakala film-film klasik populer semisal ''[[Ben-Hur (film 1959)|Ben Hur]]'', ''[[Quo Vadis (film 1951)|Quo Vadis]]'', ''[[Roman Holiday]]'', dan ''[[La Dolce Vita]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0053779/|title=La Dolce Vita (1960) |publisher=IMDb|access-date=23 July 2015}}</ref> diproduksi di Studio [[Cinecittà]] yang tersohor dan terletak di kota itu.

Suatu tren peningkatan baru pada populasi berlanjut sampai pertengahan dasawarsa 1980-an, manakala jumlah warga kota Roma mencapai lebih 2,8&nbsp;juta jiwa; sesudah itu, populasi perlahan-lahan menyusut manakala semakin banyak warga Roma pindah ke upakota-upakota di sekitarnya. [[Area metropolitan Roma]] dihuni kira-kira 4,4&nbsp;juta jiwa per tahun 2015.

Sebagai ibu kota negara Italia, Roma menjadi kota tempat semua lembaga utama negara berpusat, termasuk lembaga kepresidenan, pusat pemerintahan dengan kementerian tunggalnya, parlemen, mahkamah agung, dan perwakilan-perwakilan diplomatik untuk negara Italia maupun negara Kota Vatikan. 
Sejumlah lembaga kebudayaan, keilmuan, dan kemanusiaan internasional yang terkemuka berlokasi di Roma, termasuk [[Institut Arkeologi Jerman]] dan [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]].

Roma menjadi tuan rumah [[Olimpiade Musim Panas 1960]]. Banyak situs kuno seperti [[Taman-taman Vila Borghese|Vila Borghese]] dan [[Pemandian Caracalla|Thermae Caracalla]] dijadikan ajang perhelatan.<ref name="Olympic">{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/rome-1960-summer-olympics |title=rome 1960 Summer Olympics {{pipe}} Olympic Videos, Photos, News |author=Olympic.org. International Olympic Committee |publisher=International Olympic Committee |year=2011}}</ref> Untuk pertandingan Olimpiade didirikan bangunan-bangunan baru, yaitu Stadion Olimpico yang kemudian hari diperbesar dan direnovasi untuk dijadikan tempat digelarnya pertandingan-pertandingan kualifikasi dan pertandingan final sepak bola Piala Dunia [[FIFA]] tahun 1990, dan Villaggio Olimpico (Desa Olimpiade) yang dibangun untuk menampung para atlet dan kemudian hari dikembangkan ulang menjadi sebuah distrik perumahan.

[[Bandara Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino]] di Roma dibuka pada tahun 1961.
[[Pariwisata di Roma|Pariwisata]] mendatangkan 7–10&nbsp;juta pengunjung dalam setahun. Roma adalah kota ke-3 yang paling banyak dikunjungi orang di [[Uni Eropa]], sesudah [[London]] dan [[Paris]].
Menurut penelitian yang dilakukan pada tahun 2009, [[Koloseum]] (4&nbsp;juta wisatawan) dan [[Museum Vatikan]] (4,2&nbsp;juta wisatawam) masing-masing merupakan tempat ke-39 dan ke-37 yang paling banyak dikunjungi orang di dunia.<ref name="itvnews.tv">{{cite news|url=http://www.itvnews.tv/Blog/Blog/the-50-most-visited-places.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002073926/http://www.itvnews.tv/Blog/Blog/the-50-most-visited-places.html|archive-date=2 Oktober 2009|title=The Fifty Most Visited Places in the World|publisher=ITV News}}</ref> Banyak monumen kuno di Roma dipugar oleh pemerintah Italia dan oleh [[kota Vatikan|Vatikan]] dalam rangka perayaan [[Yubileum Agung|Yubileum Agung tahun 2000]].

== Kawasan bersejarah ==
{{Further|Daftar monumen kuno di Roma|Daftar monumen di Forum Romawi|Gereja-gereja di Roma}}
{{Further|Pariwisata di Roma|Daftar daya tarik wisata di Roma}}
Meskipun dewasa ini Roma merupakan sebuah [[metropolis]] modern, berbagai tahap dalam penjalanan panjang sejarahnya masih membekas. Kawasan bersejarah, yang diidentifikasi sebagai bagian dari lingkungan bertembok pada zaman Kekaisaran Roma, penuh dengan petilasan Romawi Kuno. Petilasan-petilasan tersebut terus-menerus diekskavasi dan terbuka untuk umum, misalnya [[Koloseum]], [[Forum Romawi]], dan [[Katakomba Roma|katakombe-katakombe]]. Ada pula petilasan-petilasan dari [[Abad Pertengahan]], istana-istana dan karya-karya seni dari Abad [[Renaisans]], maupun sekian banyak pancuran, gereja, dan istana peninggalan zaman [[Barok]]. Ada karya seni dan arsitektur periode [[Art Nouveau]], periode [[arsitektur Neoklasik|Neoklasik]], periode [[Modernis]], dan periode [[Rasionalis]], maupun museum-museum seperti [[Musei Capitolini]], [[Museum Vatikan]], dan [[Galleria Borghese]].

Petilasan-petilasan di kawasan bersejarah ditata kembali selepas [[Penyatuan Italia]] (tahun 1880–1910 – ''Roma Umbertina'') pada abad ke-19. Lonjakan populasi akibat sentralisasi negara Italia melahirkan kebutuhan akan prasarana dan akomodasi yang baru. Ada pula alterasi dan adaptasi substansial yang dilakukan pada zaman [[Fasis]], misalnya pembangunan [[Via dei Fori Imperiali]], dan [[Via della Conciliazione]] di depan Vatikan. Proyek-proyek pembangunan tersebut dapat dijalankan sesudah menghancurkan sebagian besar lingkungan [[Borgo (rione Rome)|Borgo]] lama. [[Quartieri]] baru pun dibangun, misalnya EUR ([[Esposizione Universale Roma]]), San Basilio, Garbatella, Cinecittà, Trullo, dan Quarticciolo. Akibat derasnya arus pendatang ke pesisir, [[Ostia (lingkungan di Roma)|Ostia]] pun direstrukturisasi, dan kawasan kota diperluas sehingga melingkupi desa-desa di sekitar Roma, seperti Labaro, Osteria del Curato, Quarto Miglio, Capannelle, Pisana, Torrevecchia, Ottavia, dan Casalotti.

== Lihat pula ==
*[[Teknologi Romawi]]
*[[Linimasa kota Roma]]
*[[Linimasa sejarah bangsa Romawi]]

== Rujukan ==
=== Keterangan ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Kepustakaan ===
*{{cite book|last=Beard|first=Mary|author-link=Mary Beard (classicist)|title=SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome|url=https://archive.org/details/spqrhistoryofanc0000bear_b2c1|year=2015|location=New York & London|publisher=Liveright Publishing|isbn=978-0-87140-423-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Bloch|first=Raymond|title=The ancient civilization of the Etruscans|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientcivilizat00bloc|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Cowles Book|year=1969}}
*{{Cite book|title=A history of Rome to 565 A. D. |author=Boak, Arthur Edward Romilly |year=1921 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bsoAAAAYAAJ}}
*{{cite book|editor-last=Bonfante|editor-first=Larissa |title=Etruscan Life and Afterlife: a Handbook of Etruscan Studies|url=https://archive.org/details/etruscanlifeafte0000unse_t0o5|location=Warminster|publisher=Aris and Phillips|year=1986}}
*{{cite book|last=Bonfante|first=Larissa|title=Etruscan|url=https://archive.org/details/etruscan0000bonf|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|isbn=0-520-07118-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Bonfante|first=Larissa |title=''Etruscan Inscriptions and Etruscan Religion in'' The Religion of the Etruscans|location=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2006|ref=Bonfante2006}}
*{{cite book|author=Bonfante, G.|author2=L. Bonfante|title=The Etruscan Language. An Introduction|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=2002|ref=Bonfante2002}}
*{{Cite book|title=History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I |author=Bury, J B |year=2009 |publisher=BiblioLife |isbn=978-1-113-20104-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=swAg9A3KCzUC}}
*Döge, F.U. (2004) "Die militärische und innenpolitische Entwicklung in Italien 1943–1944", Chapter 11, ''in'':''[http://www.diss.fu-berlin.de/diss/receive/FUDISS_thesis_000000001408 Pro- und antifaschistischer Neorealismus]''. PhD Thesis, Free University, Berlin. 960 halaman [dalam bahasa Jerman]
*Ekonomou, Andrew J. 2007. ''Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern influences on Rome and the papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, A.D. 590–752''. Lexington Books.
*[[Ferdinand Gregorovius|Gregorovius, Ferdinand]]. ''History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages''.
*{{cite book|last=Fields|first=Nic|title=The Roman Army of the Punic Wars 264–146 BC|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84603-145-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKxKBPFIXLMC}}
*[[Theodor Mommsen]] ''The History of Rome, Books I, II, III, IV, V.''
*{{cite book|author=Frost Abbott, Frank|title=A history and description of Roman political institutions|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryanddesc03abbogoog|year=1911|publisher=Harvard Univ. Press|isbn=0-543-92749-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Kertzer|first=David|author-link=David Kertzer|title=Prisoner of the Vatican|url=https://archive.org/details/prisonerofvatica00unse|location=Boston|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=2004|isbn=0-618-22442-4}}

==== Atribusi ====
*{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Rome/History |display=Rome § {{sc|Ancient History ...}} |volume=23 |pages=615–684}}
{{Gutenberg|no=10701|name=The History of Rome, Book I}}
{{Gutenberg|no=10702|name=The History of Rome, Book II}}
{{Gutenberg|no=10703|name=The History of Rome, Book III}}
{{Gutenberg|no=10704|name=The History of Rome, Book IV}}
{{Gutenberg|no=10705|name=The History of Rome, Book V}}
*[http://www.zeno.org/Geschichte/M/Mommsen,+Theodor/R%C3%B6mische+Geschichte ''Römische Geschichte'', dalam bahasa Jerman]

== Bacaan lanjutan ==
*{{cite book|author=Thomas W. Africa|title=The immense majesty: a history of Rome and the Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYgTAQAAIAAJ|year=1991|publisher=Harlan Davidson|isbn=978-0-88295-874-3}} [https://www.questia.com/read/111783608?title=The%20Immense%20Majesty%3a%20%20A%20History%20of%20Rome%20and%20the%20Roman%20Empire edisi daring]
*{{cite book|author1=Roloff Beny|author-link=Roloff Beny|author2=Peter Gunn|title=The churches of Rome|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kyAeqICKFOoC|year=1981|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|isbn=978-0-671-43447-2}}
*{{cite book|author=Gary Forsythe|title=A critical history of early Rome: from prehistory to the first Punic War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F7MnW50qi1sC|year=2005|publisher=[[University of California Press|Penerbit Universitas California]]|isbn=978-0-520-22651-7}}
*{{cite book|author=Tenney Frank|author-link=Tenney Frank|title=An Economic History of Rome|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66otbu13lxIC|year=2006|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=978-1-59605-647-3}} [https://www.questia.com/read/77438078?title=An%20Economic%20History%20of%20Rome edisi daring]
*{{cite book|author=Michael Grant |author-link=Michael Grant (penulis)|title=The world of Rome|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3bWAAAAMAAJ|year=1987|publisher=Meridian|isbn=978-0-452-00849-6}} [https://www.questia.com/read/1506533?title=The%20World%20of%20Rome edisi daring]; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1842120379 petikan dan pencarian teks]
*Grant, Michael. ''History of Rome'' (1997), good survey
*{{cite book|author=Christopher Hibbert|author-link=Christopher Hibbert|title=Rome: the biography of a city|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqmfQgAACAAJ|year=1987|publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]]|isbn=978-0-14-007078-1}} (1985). 386 halaman. good introduction
*Jenkyns, Richard; [https://books.google.com/books?id=Njtr3o9_v7MC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jenkyns,+Richard;+The+Legacy+of+Rome:+A+New+Appraisal&hl=en&ei=KFogTs3JPIbBswbEkqSrAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false ''The Legacy of Rome: A New Appraisal''] (1992) [https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Legacy_of_Rome.html?id=Njtr3o9_v7MC edisi daring]
*{{cite book|author=H. H. Scullard|author-link=H. H. Scullard|title=A History of the Roman World, 753 to 146 BC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9XqPMV-Wj0C|year=1980|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|isbn=978-0-415-30504-4}} (1961), standard scholarly history [https://www.questia.com/read/88132230?title=A%20History%20of%20the%20Roman%20World%20from%20753%20to%20146%20B.%20C edisi daring]
*Scullard, H. H. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vMzvAXjq1uEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Scullard,+H.+H.+From+the+Gracchi+to+Nero:+A+History+of+Rome+from+133+B.C.+to+A.D.+68&hl=en&ei=OFsgTpy4FITEswa5ha2IAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false ''From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68''] (1968), standard scholarly history [https://www.questia.com/read/6807438?title=From%20the%20Gracchi%20to%20Nero%3a%20A%20History%20of%20Rome%20from%20133%20B.C.%20to%20A.D.%2068 edisi daring]
*{{cite web|last=Duncan|first=Mike|title=The History of Rome|url=http://feeds.feedburner.com/TheHistoryOfRome|access-date=13 Februari 2016}}

=== Zaman Kekaisaran ===
*{{cite book|author=Matthew Bunson|author-link=Matthew Bunson|title=Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire|title-link=Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire|year=2002|publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]]|isbn=978-0-8160-4562-4}} (2002) 636pp, at [https://books.google.com/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC Google Books]
*{{cite book|author=J. B. Campbell|title=War and society in imperial Rome, 31 BC-AD 284|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIb9Ati37lIC&pg=PR1|year=2002|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-27881-2}} (2002) [https://www.questia.com/read/104611755?title=War%20and%20Society%20in%20Imperial%20Rome%2c%2031%20BC-CE%20284 online edition]
*{{cite book|author=Harvard University. Library|title=Ancient history: classification schedule, classified listing by call number, chronological listing, author and title listing|url=https://archive.org/details/ancienthistorycl1975harv|url-access=registration|year=1975|publisher=[[Harvard University Library]] : distributed by [[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=978-0-674-03312-2}} (1951) [https://www.questia.com/read/11633738?title=The%20Roman%20Empire online edition]
*{{cite book|author=Walter A. Goffart|author-link=Walter A. Goffart|title=Barbarian tides: the migration age and the later Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dM3kdRzztiIC&pg=PA331|year=2006|publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]]|isbn=978-0-8122-3939-3}} Volume 6, Issue 3, Pages 855–883 Online at [[Wiley-Interscience]]; historiography
*{{cite book|author=Adrian Keith Goldsworthy|author-link=Adrian Keith Goldsworthy|title=How Rome fell: death of a superpower|url=https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold|url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-13719-4}} (2009), 560pp; by leading scholar [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0300137192 excerpt and text search]
*[[Michael Grant (author)|Grant, Michael]]. ''The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome 31&nbsp;B.C.-A.D. 476'' (1997)
*[[Heather, Peter]]. ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians'' (2006) 572pp
*Potter, David. ''The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395'' (2004). [http://www.questiaschool.com/read/107556051?title=6%3A%20The%20Failure%20of%20the%20Severan%20Empire online edition]
*Rodgers, Nigel. ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire: A complete history of the rise and fall of the Roman Empire'' (2008)
*[[Michael Rostovtzeff|Rostovtzeff, M.]] ''The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire'' (2 vol 1957); famous classic [https://www.questia.com/read/6463081?title=The%20Social%20and%20Economic%20History%20of%20the%20Roman%20Empire%20-%20Vol.%202 vol 2 online]
*[[Chester Starr|Starr; Chester G.]] ''The Emergence of Rome as Ruler of the Western World'' (1953) [https://www.questia.com/read/1360979?title=The%20Emergence%20of%20Rome%20as%20Ruler%20of%20the%20Western%20World online edition]
*[[Bryan Ward-Perkins|Ward-Perkins, Bryan]]. ''The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization'' (2005) 239 pp.

=== Abad Pertengahan, Renaisans, Awal Zaman Modern ===
*Blunt, Anthony. ''Guide to Baroque Rome'' (1982) architecture 1621–1750
*Brentano, Robert; ''Rome before Avignon: A Social History of Thirteenth-Century Rome'' (1974) [https://www.questia.com/read/100326818?title=Rome%20before%20Avignon%3a%20A%20Social%20History%20of%20Thirteenth-Century%20Rome edisi daring]
*[[Dorothy Habel|Habel, Dorothy Metzger]]. ''The Urban Development of Rome in the Age of Alexander VII'' (2002) 424 hlmn. plus 223 gambar; pada dasawarsa 1660-an
* {{Cite book |last1=Stefano |first1=Andretta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VocmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44 |title=I Prìncipi della Chiesa. L'arte nel territorio di Roma tra Rinascimento e Barocco |last2=Serena |first2=Baiocchi, Giulia; Indrio |last3=Orietta |first3=Rossi Pinelli |last4=Maria |first4=Tantillo, Alma |date=2017 |publisher=Museum With No Frontiers, MWNF (Museum Ohne Grenzen) |isbn=978-3-902966-04-9 |language=it}}

{{Topik Romawi kuno|state=collapsed}}

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