Kladistika: Perbedaan antara revisi

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== Catatan kaki ==
== Catatan kaki ==
{{commonscat|Cladistics}}
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}


== Bibliography ==
<div class="references-small">
* {{Citation |last=Adrain |first=Jonathan M. |last2=Edgecombe |first2=Gregory D. |last3=Lieberman |first3=Bruce S. |year=2002 |title=Fossils, Phylogeny, and Form: An Analytical Approach |publication-place=New York |publisher=Kluwer Academic |isbn=978-0-306-46721-9 |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fpnV7NTcnuAC&lpg=PR3&pg=PA56#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=2012-08-15 |lastauthoramp=yes }}
* {{Citation |last=Baron |first=C. |last2=Høeg |first2=J.T. |year=2005 |editor-last=Koenemann |editor-first=S. |editor2-last=Jenner |editor2-first=R.A. |contribution=Gould, Scharm and the paleontologocal perspective in evolutionary biology |title=Crustacea and Arthropod Relationships |pages=3–14 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-3498-6 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=LalmQ4346O0C&dq=Nielsen,+C.+2001+%22Animal+evolution%22+Chelicerata |accessdate=15 October 2008 |lastauthoramp=yes }}
* {{Citation |last=Benton |first=M. J. |authorlink=Michael Benton |year=2000 |title=Stems, nodes, crown clades, and rank-free lists: is Linnaeus dead? |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=633–648 |url=http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Benton/reprints/2000phylocode.pdf|doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.2000.tb00055.x |pmid=11117201 }}
* {{Citation |last=Benton |first=M. J.|authorlink=Michael Benton |year=2004 |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |edition=3rd |publication-place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Science |isbn=978-0-632-05637-8 }}
* {{Citation |last1=Brinkman |first1=Fiona S.L. |last2=Leipe |first2=Detlef D. |year=2001 |editor-last=Baxevanis |editor-first=Andreas D. |editor2-last=Ouellette |editor2-first=B.F. Francis |title=Phylogenetic analysis |encyclopedia=Bioinformatics: a practical guide to the analysis of genes and proteins |pages=323–358 |url=http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/Bioinformatics/chapter-14.pdf |accessdate=2013-10-19 |edition=2nd |lastauthoramp=yes }}
* {{Citation | last=Cain | first=A. J. |last2=Harrison | first2 = G. A. |year=1960| title=Phyletic weighting |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London | volume=35 | pages=1–31 }}
* {{Citation | last=Cuénot | first=Lucien | authorlink=Lucien Cuénot | year=1940 | title=Remarques sur un essai d'arbre généalogique du règne animal | journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris | volume=210 | pages=23–27 | ref=harv | postscript=.}} Available free online at http://gallica.bnf.fr (No direct URL). This is the paper credited by {{Harvnb|Hennig|1979}} for the first use of the term 'clade'.
* {{Citation | last=Dupuis | first=Claude | year=1984 | title=Willi Hennig's impact on taxonomic thought | journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=15 |pages=1–24 |issn=0066-4162 |ref=CITEREFDupuis1984 | postscript=.}}
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1977 |contribution=On the phenetic approach to vertebrate classification |editor-last=Hecht |editor-first=M. K. |editor2-last=Goody |editor2-first=P. C.| editor3-last=Hecht |editor3-first=B. M.| title=Major Patterns in Vertebrate Evolution |pages=823–850 |publisher=Plenum, New York}}
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1979a |title=On the naturalness of phylogenetic classification |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=28 |pages=200–214 |doi=10.2307/2412523 |issue=2}}
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1979b |title=The information content of the phylogenetic system |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=28 |pages=483–519 |doi=10.2307/2412562 |issue=4}}
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1980 |title=The efficient diagnoses of the phylogenetic system |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=29 |pages=386–401 |doi=10.2307/2992344 |issue=4}}
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1983 |contribution=The logical basis of phylogenetic analysis |editor-last=Platnick |editor-first=Norman I. |editor2-last=Funk |editor2-first=Vicki A.| title=Advances in Cladistics, vol. 2 |pages=7–36 |publisher=Columbia University Press, New York}}
* {{Citation |last=Fraix-Burnet |first=D. |last2=Choler |first2=P. |last3=Douzery |first3=E.J.P. |last4=Verhamme |first4=A. |year=2006 |title=Astrocladistics: A Phylogenetic Analysis of Galaxy Evolution II. Formation and Diversification of Galaxies |journal=Journal of Classification|volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=57–78 |doi=10.1007/s00357-006-0004-4 | ref=CITEREFFraix-Burnet2006|arxiv = astro-ph/0602580 |bibcode = 2006JClas..23...57F }}
* {{Citation | last=Hennig | first=Willi | authorlink=Willi_Hennig | year=1966 | title=Phylogenetic systematics (tr. D. Dwight Davis and Rainer Zangerl) | publisher=Univ. of Illinois Press (reprinted 1979 and 1999) | location=Urbana, IL | isbn=0-252-06814-9 }}
* {{Citation | last=Hennig | first=Willi | authorlink=Willi_Hennig | year=1975 | title='Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification?': a reply to Ernst Mayr | journal=Systematic Zoology | volume=24 |pages=244–256 | url=http://joelvelasco.net/teaching/systematics/Hennig%201974%20-%20Cladistic%20Analysis%20or%20Cladistic%20Classification.pdf |doi=10.2307/2412765 | issue=2 |ref=CITEREFHennig1975 |jstor=2412765 | postscript=,}} responding to {{harvnb|Mayr|1974}}.
* {{Citation | last=Hennig | first=Willi | authorlink=Willi_Hennig | year=1999 | title=Phylogenetic systematics (3rd edition of 1966 book) | isbn=0-252-06814-9 | publisher=University of Illinois Press | location=Urbana |ref=CITEREFHennig1979}} Translated from manuscript in German eventually published in 1982 (Phylogenetische Systematik, Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin).
* {{Citation |last=Hull |first=David |author-link=David Hull |year=1988 |title=Science as a Process |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-36051-5 }}
* {{Citation |last=James |first=Frances C. |last2=Pourtless IV |first2=John A. |year=2009 |title=Cladistics and the Origin of Birds: A Review and Two New Analyses|publisher=American Ornithologists' Union |isbn=978-0-943610-85-6 |url=http://www.bio.fsu.edu/James/Ornithological%20Monographs%202009.pdf |accessdate=14 December 2010|series=Ornithological Monographs, No. 66 |lastauthoramp=yes }}
* {{Citation |last=Jerison |first=Harry J. |year=2003 |editor-last=Sternberg |editor-first=Robert J. |editor2-last=Kaufman |editor2-first=James C. |contribution=On Theory in Comparative Psychology |title=The Evolution of Intelligence |publication-place=Mahwah, NJ |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. |isbn=0-12-385250-1 }}
* {{Citation |last=Laurin |first=M. |last2=Anderson |first2=J. |year=2004 |title=Meaning of the Name Tetrapoda in the Scientific Literature: An Exchange |journal=Systematic Biology |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=68–80 |doi=10.1080/10635150490264716 |url=http://sysbio.oxfordjournals.org/content/53/1/68.full.pdf |lastauthoramp=yes |pmid=14965901 }}
* {{Citation |year=2006 |editor-last=Lipo |editor-first=Carl |editor2-last=O'Brien |editor2-first=Michael J. |editor3-last=Collard |editor3-first=Mark |editor4-last=Shennan |editor4-first=Stephen J. |title=Mapping Our Ancestors: Phylogenetic Approaches in Anthropology and Prehistory |publication-place=Piscataway |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-202-30751-0 }}
* {{Citation |last=Maas |first=Philipp |editor-last=Jürgen |editor-first=Hanneder |editor2-last=Maas |editor2-first=Philipp |location=Vienna|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences
|contribution=Computer Aided Stemmatics — The Case of Fifty-Two Text Versions of Carakasasaṃhitā Vimānasthāna 8.67-157 |booktitle=Text Genealogy, Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique |pages=63–120
|year=2010 |doi=10.1553/wzks2009-2010s63 |journal=Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens |volume=52-53 |title=Computer Aided Stemmatics — the Case of Fifty-Two Text Versions of Carakasaṃhitā Vimānasthāna 8.67-157}}
* {{Citation |year=2005 |editor-last=Mace |editor-first=Ruth |editor2-last=Clare |editor2-first=Clare J. |editor3-last=Shennan |editor3-first=Stephen |title=The Evolution of Cultural Diversity: A Phylogenetic Approach |publication-place=Portland |publisher=Cavendish Press |isbn=978-1-84472-099-6 }}
* {{Citation |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |year=1974 |title=Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification? |journal=Zeitschrift fűr Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionforschung |volume=12 |pages=94–128 |url=http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/jdv55/teaching/systematics/mayr%2074%20-%20cladistic%20analysis%20or%20cladistic%20classification.pdf |accessdate=14 December 2010 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0469.1974.tb00160.x }}
* {{Citation | last=Mayr | first=Ernst | authorlink=Ernst Mayr | title=Evolution and the diversity of life (Selected essays) | year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, MA | isbn=0-674-27105-X |ref=CITEREFMayr1976}} Reissued 1997 in paperback. Includes a reprint of Mayr's 1974 anti-cladistics paper at pp.&nbsp;433–476, "Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification." This is the paper to which {{harvnb|Hennig|1975}} is a response.
* {{Citation|last=Mayr|first=Ernst |year=1978|title=Origin and history of some terms in systematic and evolutionary biology|journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=27|pages=83–88|ref=CITEREFMayr1978|doi=10.2307/2412818|issue=1|jstor=2412818|postscript=.}}
* {{Citation | last=Mayr | first=Ernst | authorlink=Ernst Mayr | title=The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution and inheritance | year=1982 |publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, MA | isbn=0-674-36446-5 |ref=CITEREFMayr1982}}
* {{Citation |last=Oppenheimer |first=Stephen |year=2006 |title=The Origins of the British |publication-place=London |publisher=Robinson |isbn=978-0-7867-1890-0 }}
* {{Citation | last=Patterson | first=Colin | year=1982 | contribution=Morphological characters and homology | editor-last=Joysey |editor-first=Kenneth A|editor2-first=A. E. |editor2-last=Friday | title=Problems in Phylogenetic Reconstruction | publisher=Academic Press | location=London |series=Systematics Association Special Volume 21| isbn=0-12-391250-4|ref=CITEREFPatterson1982 | postscript=<!--None-->}}.
* {{Citation |last=Patterson |first=Colin |year=1988 |title=Homology in classical and molecular biology |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=603–625 |pmid=3065587 }}
* {{Citation |last=de Pinna |first=M.G.G |year=1991 |title=Concepts and tests of homology in the cladistic paradigm |journal=Cladistics |volume=7 |pages=367–394 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1991.tb00045.x |issue=4 }}
* {{Citation |last=de Queiroz |first=K. |last2=Gauthier |first2=J. |year=1992 |title=Phylogenetic taxonomy |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=23 |pages=449–480 |url=http://www.faculty.biol.ttu.edu/strauss/Phylogenetics/Readings/deQueirozGauthier1992.pdf |lastauthoramp=yes}}
* {{Citation |last=Robinson |first=Peter M.W. |last2=O’Hara |first2=Robert J. |year=1996 |title=Cladistic analysis of an Old Norse manuscript tradition |journal=Research in Humanities Computing |volume=4 |pages=115–137 |url=http://rjohara.net/cv/1996-rhc |accessdate=13 December 2010 |lastauthoramp=yes }}
* {{Citation |last=Schuh |first=Randall T. |last2=Brower |first2=Andrew V.Z. |year=2009 |title=Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications |edition=2nd |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-4799-0 |lastauthoramp=yes }}
* {{Citation |last=Taylor |first=Mike |year=2003 |title=What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean? |url=http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |accessdate=13 December 2010 }}
* {{Citation |last=Tremblay |first=Frederic |year=2013 |title=Nicolai Hartmann and the Metaphysical Foundation of Phylogenetic Systematics |journal=Biological Theory |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=56–68 |doi=10.1007/s13752-012-0077-8 }}
* {{Citation |last=Weygoldt |first=P. |year=1998 |title=Evolution and systematics of the Chelicerata |journal=Experimental and Applied Acarology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1023/A:1006037525704 |month=February }}
* {{Citation |last=Wheeler |first=Quentin |year=2000 |title=Species Concepts and Phylogenetic Theory: A Debate |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-10143-1 }}
* {{Citation |last=Wiley |first=E.O. |last2=Siegel-Causey |first2=D. |last3=Brooks |first3=D.R. |last4=Funk |first4=V.A. |year=1991 |contribution=Chapter 1 Introduction, terms and concepts |title=The Compleat Cladist: A Primer of Phylogenetic Procedures |publisher=The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History |isbn=978-0-89338-035-9 |url=http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf |accessdate=13 December 2010 |lastauthoramp=yes }}
* {{Citation |last=Williams |first=P.A. |year=1992 |title=Confusion in cladism |journal=Synthese |volume=01 |pages=135–132 |doi=10.1007/BF00484973 }}
</div>

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Cladistics.ogg|2005-04-30}}
{{commonscat|Cladistics}}
* [http://www.cladistics.org/ Willi Hennig Society]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1096-0031 Cladistics] (scholarly journal of the Willi Hennig Society)
* {{cite web|first=Allen G.|last=Collins|first2=Rob|last2=Guralnick|first3=Dave|last3=Smith|title=Journey into Phylogenetic Systematics|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad4.html|date=1994–2005|publisher=University of California Museum of Paleontology|accessdate=21 January 2010}}
* {{cite web|first=Joe|last=Felsenstein|title=Phylogeny Programs|location=Seattle|publisher=University of Washington|accessdate=21 January 2010|url=http://evolution.gs.washington.edu/phylip/software.html}}
* {{cite web|first=Dennis|last=O'Neil|date=1998–2008|title=Classification of Living Things|location=San Marcos CA|publisher=Palomar College|accessdate=21 January 2010|url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/animal/default.htm}}
* {{cite web|first=Peter|last=Robinson|first2=Robert J.|last2=O'Hara|title=Report on the Textual Criticism Challenge 1991|year=1992|publisher=rjohara.net|url=http://rjohara.net/darwin/files/bmcr|accessdate=21 January 2010}}
* {{cite web|first=Douglas|last=Theobald|date=1999–2004|title=Phylogenetics Primer|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/phylo.html|publisher=The TalkOrigins Archive|accessdate=21 January 2010}}
[[Kategori:Biologi perkembangan]]
[[Kategori:Biologi perkembangan]]
[[Kategori:Statistika]]
[[Kategori:Statistika]]

Revisi per 6 Januari 2014 10.52

Pohon evolusi, salah satu bentuk kladogram. Pohon evolusi ini dibuat dari data urutan genetik semua organisme hidup yang telah sepenuhnya disekuensing.

Kladistika (dari bahasa Inggris: cladistics > bahasa Yunani Kuna: κλάδος, klados, "cabang") adalah ilmu dalam sistematika mengenai cara mengelompokkan berbagai komponen berdasarkan kemiripan karakteristiknya. Kladistika bersifat kuantitatif (banyak menggunakan informasi angka/bilangan) dan banyak memakai prinsip statistika dan geometri.[1]

Penerapannya pertama kali dilakukan terhadap organisme hidup oleh seorang entomolog Jerman, Willi Hennig. Hennig sendiri menamakannya "sistematika filogenetik". Dalam taksonomi biologi, komponen yang dimaksud adalah spesies atau unit takson lainnya. Penamaan "kladistika" diberikan oleh ilmuwan lain.

Kladistika dianggap sebagai pengembangan dari fenetika, suatu cara pengelompokkan kuantitatif dalam sistematika biologi yang berbasis pada kemiripan morfologi. Agak berbeda dari fenetika, kladistika mendasarkan diri pada ciri-ciri evolusioner dan molekuler. Ilmu ini banyak dipakai dalam filogeni/filogenesis/filogenetika. Ketika diterapkan dalam filogeni, kesamaan ciri-ciri molekuler yang dikuantifikasi dan didukung oleh keluaran kladistika diberi tafsiran evolusioner. Oleh sebab itu, dalam kladistika pengelompokkan selalu diarahkan pada pembentukan klad yang tuntas (mencakup semua komponen yang termasuk di dalamnya).

Karena sifatnya yang lebih universal, kladistika sekarang dipakai pula dalam bidang-bidang lain, seperti sastra dan linguistika. Contoh penerapan dalam sastra adalah penggunaannya dalam pengelompokkan berbagai versi manuskrip Canterbury Tales[2]. Dalam linguistika, kladistika dipakai untuk melakukan pengelompokan ulang bahasa-bahasa Austronesia.

Keluaran dari kladistika yang pokok adalah kladogram (cladistic dendrogram), suatu diagram percabangan yang dianggap mewakili hubungan kekerabatan di antara organisme/komponen yang dikelompokkan. Kladogram dapat dianggap sebagai pohon evolusi. Kladogram dibuat dengan memanfaatkan ratusan ribu hingga jutaan informasi genetik, baik berupa penanda maupun sekuens DNA dan RNA. Penggunaan komputer tidak dapat diabaikan dalam kajian ini.

Klad dan monofilisme

Tiga situasi pengelompokan yang dapat dijumpai. Contoh kladogram ini menunjukkan hubungan evolusioner pada vertebrata. Kelompok berwarna merah ("hewan berdarah panas") bersifat polifiletik, kelompok berwarna biru (Reptilia) bersifat parafiletik, karena Reptilia tanpa mencakup Aves (unggas) tidak tuntas. Berdasarkan prinsip kladistika, terbentuk suatu klad dalam vertebrata, Sauropsida, yang monofiletik (warna kuning).

Klad adalah kajian utama dalam kladistika. Terdapat tiga situasi dalam pengelompokan berdasarkan kladistika: monofili (dari monophyly; bentuk adjektivanya adalah monofiletik, dari monophyletic; sinonimnya adalah holofili), parafili, dan polifili (dari polyphyly). Suatu pengelompokan dengan menggunakan kladistika harus menghasilkan suatu klad yang tuntas, yang disebut monofiletik. Prinsip ini dipakai dalam klasifikasi tumbuhan modern, yang untuk tumbuhan berbunga telah menghasilkan Sistem Klasifikasi APG (dan APG II) yang diterima luas di kalangan botaniwan.

Catatan kaki

  1. ^ "Natural History Collections: Cladistics". Diakses tanggal 4 July 2009. 
  2. ^ Misalnya "Canterbury Tales Project". Diakses tanggal 4 July 2009. 

Bibliography

External links

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