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{{Sejarah Israel}}

[[Berkas:Bet_She'an_Theatre_stage_1230.jpg|jmpl|[[Beit She'an| Reruntuhan Beit she'an]]]]
[[Berkas:Bet_She'an_Theatre_stage_1230.jpg|jmpl|[[Beit She'an| Reruntuhan Beit she'an]]]]

[[Berkas:Greek_Soldiers.jpg|jmpl|[[Sarkofagus]] Helenistik yang ditemukan di [[Ashkelon]]]]
[[Berkas:Greek_Soldiers.jpg|jmpl|[[Sarkofagus]] Helenistik yang ditemukan di [[Ashkelon]]]]
'''Arkeologi Israel''' adalah kajian [[arkeologi]] di wilayah [[Israel]] masa kini, yang terentang dari zaman prasejarah melalui tiga ribu tahun sejarah yang didokumentasikan. [[Tanah Israel]] Kuno merupakan jembatan geografis antara pusat-pusat politik dan budaya: [[Mesopotamia]] dan [[Mesir]]. Meskipun nilai penting negara ini untuk tiga agama besar, penelitian arkeologi serius baru dimulai pada abad ke-15.<ref name="Israel 1971, p.66-71">''Encyclopedia of Zionism and Israel'', edited by Raphael Patai, Herzl Press and McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971, vol. I, p.66-71</ref> Pekerjaan besar utama pada benda-benda antik Israel dilakukan oleh Adriaan Reland yang menulis ''Palestina ex monumentis veteribus,'' diterbitkan pada tahun 1709. Edward Robinson, seorang teolog Amerika mengunjungi negara itu pada tahun 1838, menerbitkan studi topografi pertama. Lady Hester Stanhope melakukan modern pertama penggalian di [[Askelon]] pada tahun 1815. Ilmuwan Prancis, Louis Felicien de Saucy, memulai awal penggalian "modern" pada tahun 1850.
'''Arkeologi Israel''' adalah kajian [[arkeologi]] di wilayah [[Israel]] masa kini, yang terentang dari zaman prasejarah melalui tiga ribu tahun sejarah yang didokumentasikan. [[Tanah Israel]] Kuno merupakan jembatan geografis antara pusat-pusat politik dan budaya: [[Mesopotamia]] dan [[Mesir]]. Meskipun nilai penting negara ini untuk tiga agama besar, penelitian arkeologi serius baru dimulai pada abad ke-15.<ref name="Israel 1971, p.66-71">''Encyclopedia of Zionism and Israel'', edited by Raphael Patai, Herzl Press and McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971, vol. I, p.66-71</ref> Pekerjaan besar utama pada benda-benda antik Israel dilakukan oleh Adriaan Reland yang menulis ''Palestina ex monumentis veteribus,'' diterbitkan pada tahun 1709. Edward Robinson, seorang teolog Amerika mengunjungi negara itu pada tahun 1838, menerbitkan studi topografi pertama. Lady Hester Stanhope melakukan modern pertama penggalian di [[Askelon]] pada tahun 1815. Ilmuwan Prancis, Louis Felicien de Saucy, memulai awal penggalian "modern" pada tahun 1850.

Ketika membahas keadaan arkeologi di Israel dalam zamannya, David Ussishkin berkomentar pada tahun 1980-an bahwa sebutan "'''arkeologi Israel'''" tidak lagi mewakili satu pendekatan metodologis seragam; sebaliknya, ruang lingkupnya meliputi berbagai bidang arkeologi, disiplin ilmu, konsep, dan metode yang saat ini ada di Israel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ussishkin|first=David|author-link=David Ussishkin|date=Spring 1982|title=Where is Israeli archeology going?|journal=[[Biblical Archaeologist]]|volume=45|issue=2|page=93}}</ref>
Ketika membahas keadaan arkeologi di Israel dalam zamannya, David Ussishkin berkomentar pada tahun 1980-an bahwa sebutan "'''arkeologi Israel'''" tidak lagi mewakili satu pendekatan metodologis seragam; sebaliknya, ruang lingkupnya meliputi berbagai bidang arkeologi, disiplin ilmu, konsep, dan metode yang saat ini ada di Israel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ussishkin|first=David|author-link=David Ussishkin|date=Spring 1982|title=Where is Israeli archeology going?|journal=[[Biblical Archaeologist]]|volume=45|issue=2|page=93}}</ref>


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==== Paleolitik Bawah ====
==== Paleolitik Bawah ====
Awal Paleolitik Bawah di Israel didefinisikan oleh penemuan arkeologi awal yang tersedia. Kadang-kadang, ketika masih baru, ditemukan situs yang lebih kuno, sehingga batas periode ini didefinisikan ulang. Saat ini situs yang paling kuno di Israel, dan salah satu yang paling awal di luar [[Afrika]], adalah Ubeidiya, di Lembah Yordan. Umurnya diperkirakan antara 1.55 dan 1,2 juta tahun [[Sebelum Sekarang|BP]]. Banyak [[Alat batu|alat-alat batu]] dari budaya Acheulean telah ditemukan di sana. Di antara situs lainnya dari periode ini adalah situs di Daughters of Jacob Bridge, yang bertarikh 790,000 [[Sebelum Sekarang|BP]], diperkirakan menggunakan [[Paleomagnetisme]]. Beberapa bukti-bukti awal penggunaan api dan alat-alat kayu telah ditemukan di situs ini.
Awal Paleolitik Bawah di Israel didefinisikan oleh penemuan arkeologi awal yang tersedia. Kadang-kadang, ketika masih baru, ditemukan situs yang lebih kuno, sehingga batas periode ini didefinisikan ulang. Saat ini situs yang paling kuno di Israel, dan salah satu yang paling awal di luar [[Afrika]], adalah Ubeidiya, di Lembah Yordan. Umurnya diperkirakan antara 1.55 dan 1,2 juta tahun [[Sebelum Sekarang|BP]]. Banyak [[Alat batu|alat-alat batu]] dari budaya Acheulean telah ditemukan di sana. Di antara situs lainnya dari periode ini adalah situs di Daughters of Jacob Bridge, yang bertarikh 790,000 [[Sebelum Sekarang|BP]], diperkirakan menggunakan [[Paleomagnetisme]]. Beberapa bukti-bukti awal penggunaan api dan alat-alat kayu telah ditemukan di situs ini.

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It has been estimated that the people who had left the remains discovered on the two aforementioned sites belonged to the species ''[[Homo erectus]],'' although the [[human fossils]] found were too few and incomplete to make a positive identification possible. An additional site from the early Lower Paleolithic is the Ruhama Swamp in the northern [[Negev]], which contains remains from the [[Oldowan|Oldowan culture]].

Most of the sites from this period belong to the [[Acheulean|Acheulean culture]], and on many of them remains of elephant bones have been found, together with tools made of [[flint]] and of [[basalt]]. Additional important sites are [[Revadim]], [[Tabun Cave]] in [[Nahal Me'arot Nature Reserve]], a site near the city of [[Holon]], and a site located near [[kibbutz]] [[Evron, Israel|Evron]].

At the end of the Lower Paleolithic, between 400,000 and 250,000 BP, the [[Acheulo-Yabrudian complex]] has emerged. The site near [[Lake Ram]], in the [[Golan Heights]], where the [[Venus of Berekhat Ram]] was discovered, probably belongs to this [[Archaeological culture|cultural horizon]]. This statue is considered, by some, to be the earliest artistic representation of the human form. One of the human fossils from this period is the ''Galilee Skull'' - part of a skull discovered by [[Francis Turville-Petre]] in [[Mugharet el-Zuttiyeh]], in [[Nahal Amud]] - which is considered today to be the skull of a ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' or of an ''[[Early Homo sapiens|early Homo Sapiens]]''. Notable Acheulo-Yabrudian sites are [[Tabun Cave]] and [[Qesem Cave]].

==== Middle paleolithic ====
{{Main article|Mousterian}}This period has been dated to the years 250,000 - 45,000 BP. Fossils of [[Neanderthal]]s and of [[Homo sapiens|Homo-Sapiens]] from this period have been discovered in Israel. The Homo-Sapiens remains found in Israel are the oldest [[anatomically modern human]] remains that were discovered outside of Africa. It is yet unclear whether Neanderthals and Homo-Sapiens populations coexisted side by side, in this area, or replaced each other as the [[global climate]] shifted, as was common during the [[Pleistocene]]. Both used the same style of [[stone tool]]s, identified as the [[Mousterian|Mousterian culture]]. Remains of this culture have been discovered all over Israel, in dozens of cave sites and open sites. Judging by the size and content of these sites it seems the population living in the area of today's Israel in that period was small. Groups were small and they subsisted on [[hunting]], consuming the carcasses of dead animals and [[Foraging|gathering]] plants.

Their preferred game was the [[Mountain gazelle]], the [[Persian fallow deer]] and the [[Aurochs]]. In cave sites that had been used as seasonal dwellings in that period dozens of buried human skeletons have been uncovered. The most famous ancient Homo-Sapiens skeletons are the ones discovered in [[Es Skhul]] cave in [[Nahal Me'arot Nature Reserve|Nahal Me'arot]] and in Me'arat Kedumim ([[Kedumim Cave]]) in Lower Galilee; the most notable Neanderthal skeletons are from [[Tabun Cave]] in Nahal Me'arot, from [[Kebara Cave]], near [[Zikhron Ya'akov]], and from Amud Cave in [[Nahal Amud]]. Other important sites are Misliyah Cave and Sephunim Cave in the Carmel and several open sites in the Golan, in the [[Negev]] and in the [[Israeli coastal plain|Coastal plain]].

==== Upper paleolithic ====
{{Main article|Aurignacian}}This period in Israel has been dated to between 45,000 BC and 20,500 BC, and its sites are associated with two cultural horizons: the [[Aurignacian|Aurignacian culture]] and the Akhmerian culture. Some technological advancements were made in this period, including the introduction of new techniques for manufacturing [[flint tools]], the invention of the [[bow and arrow]], and the manufacturing of [[stone tool]]s intended for grinding food and preparing [[dye]]s. Humans began making tools from animal bones and the use of [[seashell]]s for decoration became widespread. Parts of skeletons were discovered in various sites, but no [[Cemetery|cemeteries]] from this period were ever found. It seems that during this era the [[Neanderthal]]s disappeared, from Israel, as they were going extinct throughout the [[Middle East]] and [[Europe]], at the time.

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[[Berkas:Skeleton_of_woman.jpg|jmpl|Kerangka wanita dari periode paleolitik]]
[[Berkas:Skeleton_of_woman.jpg|jmpl|Kerangka wanita dari periode paleolitik]]
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=== Epipaleolithic period ===
{{Main article|Epipaleolithic (Levant)|Kebaran|Mushabian culture|Natufian culture|Harifian}}In this era, bridging between the mobile bands of hunter-gatherers of the Paleolithic and the agricultural villages of the Neolithic, 3 different cultures existed in Israel: the [[Kebaran|Kebaran culture]], dated to 18,000 - 12,500 BC, the Kebaran Geometric culture, dated to 12,500 - 10,500 BC and the [[Natufian culture]], dated to 12,500 - 9,500 BC.

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=== Periode neolitik ===
=== Periode neolitik ===
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=== Periode Chalcolithic ===
=== Periode Chalcolithic ===
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==== Definition ====
Our understanding of the [[Chalcolithic]] period in Israel and in the [[Levant]] is still far from perfect. It seems that Chalcolitic cultures appeared in the northern [[Jordan Rift Valley|Jordan Valley]] around 4,800 BC, and in the southern parts of this valley, and, particularly, in [[Teleilat el Ghassul|Teleilat el-Ghassul]], around 4,500 BC. Though no direct evidence to this effect is currently available, it is possible that Chalcolithic civilizations have spread from the northern parts of Israel to its southern parts, over the course of several centuries, during the first half of the 5th millennium BC. Judging by evidence from the material culture, there seems to be no direct link between the Late Neolithic cultures and the early Chalcholithic cultures that replaced them, in this region.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/paleo_0153-9345_2007_num_33_1_5205.pdf|title=The Late Neolithic/Early Chalcolithic Transition at Teleilat Ghassul: Context, Chronology and Culture. In: Paléorient, 2007, vol. 33, n°1. pp. 15-32|last=Bourke|first=S.J.|date=2007|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> The Chalcolithic period ended in Israel around 3,500 BC, with the rise of the Early Bronze civilization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rowan|first=Yorke M.|last2=Golden|first2=Jonathan|date=2009-03-01|title=The Chalcolithic Period of the Southern Levant: A Synthetic Review|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10963-009-9016-4|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|language=en|volume=22|issue=1|pages=1–92|doi=10.1007/s10963-009-9016-4|issn=0892-7537}}</ref>

Chief among the Chalcolithic cultures of the Levant is the [[Ghassulian]] culture of the mid to late Chalcolithic. It might have been preceded by the Bsorian culture. The Ghassulian culture itself is made of several subcultures, one of which is the [[Beersheba culture]].

==== Subsistence ====
Hundreds of Chalcolithic sites have been discovered in Israel. Their subsistence was based on farming crops - chiefly [[wheat]], [[barley]] and [[lentil]]s - and on livestock: [[sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[pig]]s and [[cattle]]. The livestock was also used for producing wool and dairy products. This is evident from the many [[butter churn]]s, made of clay, and also from the large number of animal figurines that have been discovered on Chalcolithic sites. People of the Chalcolithic period were also the first, in Israel, to grow cultivated fruit bearing trees, such as [[date palm]]s, [[Olive|olive trees]] and [[pomegranate]]s.

==== Industry and material culture ====
The [[Ghassulian]]s were the first, in Israel, to smelt and work [[copper]]. Settlements of the [[Beersheba culture]], a late Ghassulian subculture, specialized in different types of industry. [[Bir Abu Matar]] produced copper and copper tools, artifacts and [[Jewellery|jewelry]]. [[Copper ore]], imported from [[Wadi Feynan]] or from [[Timna]], was ground and then cooked in ovens. It was then smelted in special furnaces made of compacted earth mixed with straw. The molten metal was collected in special clay bowls and cast into earthen molds that were shattered after the metal had cooled. The people of Bir Tzafad specialized in [[ivory carving]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=History of the Land - Israel, Volume I, edited by Joel Rappel|last=Rappel|first=Joel|publisher=The Israeli Ministry of Defense|year=1980|isbn=978-9650500504|location=Israel|pages=47–60}}</ref>

People of the Chalcolithic era also produced a multitude of [[Stone tool|stone (flint) tools]], chief among which were fan [[Scraper (archaeology)|scrapers]], used mainly for working leather.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zutovski|first=Katia|last2=Yerkes|first2=Richard W.|last3=Agam|first3=Aviad|last4=Wilson|first4=Lucy|last5=Getzov|first5=Nimrod|last6=Milevski|first6=Ianir|last7=Gopher|first7=Avi|date=2016-09-15|title=A techno-typological analysis of fan (tabular) scrapers from Ein Zippori, Israel|url=http://journals.ed.ac.uk/lithicstudies/article/view/1454|journal=Journal of Lithic Studies|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=207–238|issn=2055-0472}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":02" /> [[Bone tool]]s - such as picks, needles, combs and sickles - were also in use.<ref name=":2" />

==== Ghassulian Art ====
Elaborate, multicolored, wall paintings, done on plaster, that were probably associated with Ghassulian religious practices, were discovered in the later Chalcolithic layers of Teleilat el-Ghassul - the layers associated with the Ghassulian culture. The painters employed elaborate techniques, including the use of rulers to draw straight lines, and produced works of high accuracy. Periodically, a new layer of plaster would be applied to the wall, and covered in fresh paintings. Over 20 such layers were discovered on the walls of one of the houses.<ref name=":02" />

The Ghassulians also produced ivory statuettes, often of naked women or of bearded men, or using other motifs, for instance - birds. These statuettes had holes at the top, and were probably meant to be suspended by a string. They include motifs found in artifacts from [[Prehistoric Egypt|pre-dinastic]] [[Upper Egypt]] ([[Amratian culture|Amratian]] and [[Gerzeh culture|Gerzean]] cultures).<ref name=":02" />

==== Trade ====
People of the Chalcolithic engaged in extensive trade. Copper ore for the Ghassulian copper industry was imported from [[Timna]] of from [[Wadi Feynan]], in today's Jordan. [[Basalt]] artifacts (sets of large, finely-crafted, basalt bowls) that were probably used in religious rituals were imported from the north, from the [[Golan Heights|Golan]] or from the [[Hauran|Houran]]. These sets of exquisite artifacts also indicate an early phase of social stratification in Chalcolithic societies, since they were only found in several of the houses, whereas in others similar sets made of clay were discovered.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kotar.co.il/KotarApp/Viewer.aspx?nBookID=98747932#13.1702.6.default|title=קראו בכותר - באר שבע ואתריה|website=www.kotar.co.il|language=he|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref><ref name=":02" /> Ivory for making ivory statuettes was brought from Africa, marine shells - from the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coastline, from the [[Red Sea]] and from the [[Nile valley|Nile Valley]]. The settlements also traded with each other.<ref name=":3" />

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=== Zaman perunggu / periode Kanaan ===
=== Zaman perunggu / periode Kanaan ===
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=== Zaman besi / periode Israel ===
=== Zaman besi / periode Israel ===
[[Berkas:Lakhish_Letters.jpg|jmpl|Surat-surat lakhis]]
[[Berkas:Lakhish_Letters.jpg|jmpl|[[Surat-surat Lakhis]].]]
Zaman Besi di Levant dimulai pada sekitar 1200 SM, setelah Akhir Zaman Perunggu Runtuh, ketika alat-alat besi mulai digunakan. Dikenal juga sebagai periode [[Bani Israil|Israel]]. Beragam temuan arkeologi yang kaya membuktikan kaitan dan hubungan perdagangan.internasional yang kuat.<nowiki/><span id="cx" tabindex="0"></span>
Zaman Besi di Levant dimulai pada sekitar 1200 SM, setelah Akhir Zaman Perunggu Runtuh, ketika alat-alat besi mulai digunakan. Dikenal juga sebagai periode [[Bani Israil|Israel]]. Beragam temuan arkeologi yang kaya membuktikan kaitan dan hubungan perdagangan.internasional yang kuat.
[[Kategori:Artikel dengan pernyataan yang tidak disertai rujukan Agustus 2018|Arkeologi Israel]]

Dalam periode ini baik bukti-bukti arkeologi dan narasi bukti-bukti dari Alkitab menjadi lebih kaya dan banyak tulisan telah berusaha menjelaskan hubungan di antara keduanya. Kronologi meliputi:
Dalam periode ini baik bukti-bukti arkeologi dan narasi bukti-bukti dari Alkitab menjadi lebih kaya dan banyak tulisan telah berusaha menjelaskan hubungan di antara keduanya. Kronologi meliputi:


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* Zaman Besi III 586-539 SM (periode [[Kekaisaran Babilonia Baru|Neo-Babel]])
* Zaman Besi III 586-539 SM (periode [[Kekaisaran Babilonia Baru|Neo-Babel]])


Pandangan tradisional, yang dipersonifikasikan oleh para arkeolog seperti [[William F. Albright|Albright]] dan George Ernest Wright|Wright, menerima dengan setia peristiwa-peristiwa alkitabiah sebagai sejarah, tetapi hal ini telah dipertanyakan oleh "Alkitab minimalis" seperti Niels Peter Lemche, Thomas L. Thompson dan Philip R. Davies. Israel Finkelstein<ref>[http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/faculty/finkelcv.html Israel Finkelstein, Professor of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University Web page]</ref> berpendapat bahwa [[Kerajaan Israel (kerajaan bersatu)|kerajaan Daud dan Salomo]] (Kerajaan Bersatu) tidak pernah ada dan Yehuda tidak dalam posisi untuk mendukung keadaan yang diperpanjang sampai awal abad ke-8. Finklestein menerima keberadaan Raja Daud dan Salomo tapi meragukan [[kronologi]], signifikansi dan pengaruh mereka seperti yang dijelaskan dalam Alkitab.<ref>[http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/shifting-ground-in-the-holy-land-114897288/ "Shifting Ground In The Holy Land"], ''Smithsonian Magazine''</ref> Tanpa mengklaim bahwa segala sesuatu dalam Alkitab akurat secara historis, beberapa unsur-unsur cerita non-[[Supernatural|supranatural]] ditemukan benar sesuai dengan artefak fisik dan temuan arkeologi lainnya. Prasasti-prasasti seperti [[Prasasti Tel Dan|Tel Dan Prasasti]] dan [[Batu Moab|Mesha Stele]] dapat ditelusuri ke budaya non-Ibrani asalnya.
Pandangan tradisional, yang dipersonifikasikan oleh para arkeolog seperti [[William F. Albright|Albright]] dan [[:en:George Ernest Wright|Wright]], menerima dengan setia peristiwa-peristiwa alkitabiah sebagai sejarah, tetapi hal ini telah dipertanyakan oleh "Alkitab minimalis" seperti Niels Peter Lemche, Thomas L. Thompson dan Philip R. Davies. Israel Finkelstein<ref>[http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/faculty/finkelcv.html Israel Finkelstein, Professor of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University Web page]</ref> berpendapat bahwa [[Kerajaan Israel (kerajaan bersatu)|kerajaan Daud dan Salomo]] (Kerajaan Bersatu) tidak pernah ada dan Yehuda tidak dalam posisi untuk mendukung keadaan yang diperpanjang sampai awal abad ke-8. Finklestein menerima keberadaan Raja Daud dan Salomo tapi meragukan [[kronologi]], signifikansi dan pengaruh mereka seperti yang dijelaskan dalam Alkitab.<ref>[http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/shifting-ground-in-the-holy-land-114897288/ "Shifting Ground In The Holy Land"], ''Smithsonian Magazine''</ref> Tanpa mengklaim bahwa segala sesuatu dalam Alkitab akurat secara historis, beberapa unsur-unsur cerita non-[[Supernatural|supranatural]] ditemukan benar sesuai dengan artefak fisik dan temuan arkeologi lainnya. Prasasti-prasasti seperti [[Prasasti Tel Dan]] dan [[Batu Moab|Batu Moab (''Mesha Stele'')]] dapat ditelusuri ke budaya non-Ibrani asalnya.
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==== Origins of the Ancient Israelites – the Tel Aviv School ====
Following the collapse of many cities and civilizations in the eastern [[Mediterranean Basin]] at the end of the Bronze Age, certain local nomadic groups in eastern [[Canaan]] began settling in the mountainous regions of that land (the mountain ranges on both sides of the [[Jordan River]], of which the western part is known today as [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]], or the [[West Bank]]). In this period the [[Sea Peoples]] invaded the countries along the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, creating the [[Philistines|Philistine city states]] along the seacoast of southwestern Canaan. [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] lost its control of the land in the 12th century BC – the exact date is currently being disputed, and this issue is closely linked to the [[Israel Finkelstein#The Low Chronology|Low Chronology / High Chronology]] dispute.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts|last=Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman|first=|publisher=Free Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|location=United States|pages=}}</ref>

According to [[Israel Finkelstein]], this tendency of [[nomad]]s to settle down, or of sedentary populations to become nomadic, when circumstances make it worth their while, is typical of many Mid-Eastern populations which retain the knowledge of both ways of life and can switch between them fairly easily. This happens on a small scale, but can also happen on a large scale, when regional political and economical circumstances change dramatically. According to Finkelstein, this process of settlement on a large scale in the mountain-ranges of Canaan had already happened twice before, in the Bronze Age, during periods when the urban civilization was in decline. The numbers of settlers were smaller in those previous two instances, and the settlement-systems they created ended up dissipating instead of coalescing into more mature political entities, as was the case with the settlers of the early Iron Age.<ref name=":0" />

In the early stages of this process, settlements had the form of nomadic tent-camps: a ring of stone houses surrounding an inner yard where the [[livestock]] was kept. Gradually, as the settlement evolved, that space was filled up with houses. The composition of animal bones found in successive [[Layer (archeology)|archaeological layers]] also displays change over time, reflecting the change in lifestyle - nomadic societies raise many [[sheep]] and [[goat]]s and very little [[cattle]]. As the settlement process progressed, the percentage of cattle bones found in animal bone deposits increased dramatically.<ref name=":0" /> Another characteristic of the early Israelite settlements is the absence of [[pig]] bones in excavated sites, which seems to be the earliest evidence of the development of an "Israelite national identity", though it is, so far, not quite conclusive.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

At the height of this process, in the 10th century BC, the population of the areas that would become the early [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and the early [[Kingdom of Judah|Kingdom of Judea]] (before these kingdoms began spreading into the surrounding lowlands) numbered around 45,000. In the 11th century BC [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]] probably served as a religious center and might have held some political power in the region. In the mid to late 10th century BC an early Israelite state formation emerged (possibly the one referred to in the [[Old Testament]] as the Kingdom of [[Saul]]).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/9781589839106dwld_txt.pdf|title=THE FORGOTTEN KINGDOM – The Archaeology and History of Northern Israel|last=Finkelstein|first=Israel|date=2013|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

It has been suggested by [[Israel Finkelstein|Finkelstein]] that this early Israelite state - and not David's 'unified kingdom', which he sees as a "literary construct" - had been the target of the campaign of [[Shoshenq I]] to Canaan, in the middle of the second half of the 10th century BC. There is evidence of a large scale abandonment of settlements in the heartland of the Kingdom of [[Saul]], as described in the [[Old Testament]], around that time - in the land of the [[Tribe of Benjamin]], just north of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the area of [[Gibeah]]. This attack by Shoshenq I on the Israelite kingdom was, most likely, a response to this kingdom's attempts to expand into the lowlands of Canaan (as evidenced by a series of destruction events of Canaanite cities in the north of Israel around that time), and a part of this [[Pharaoh|Paraoh]]'s effort to take control over Canaan.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

The kingdom of Judah was relatively small - maybe 5,000 people in the 10th century BC - and had been a vassal of Israel at least since the early 9th century, when the powerful [[Omrides|Omride dynasty]] had taken over that kingdom, and until Israel's destruction by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] in the late 8th century BC. The Old Testament is mostly a Judean creation, though it incorporates many traditions (and, possibly, texts) from the Kingdom of Israel. As such, it describes the history of these two kingdoms, in the Iron Age, from a strictly Judean theological perspective and its historical account is biased, though it becomes relatively reliable from the 9th century onward.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

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=== Kerajaan Israel Dan Yehuda ===
=== Kerajaan Israel Dan Yehuda ===
Baris 79: Baris 144:
* Jalan periode Bizantium di Yerusalem<ref>MSNBC – article by Shira Rubin, February 10, 2010 [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/35330151/ns/technology_and_science-science "Byzantine-era street found in Jerusalem"] Retrieved 24 February 2010</ref>
* Jalan periode Bizantium di Yerusalem<ref>MSNBC – article by Shira Rubin, February 10, 2010 [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/35330151/ns/technology_and_science-science "Byzantine-era street found in Jerusalem"] Retrieved 24 February 2010</ref>
* Pemerasan anggur berusia 1400 tahun<ref>''Haaretz'', 15 February 2010, [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1149897.html "Israel archaeologists unearth 1,400 year-old wine press"], Retrieved 3 March 2010</ref>
* Pemerasan anggur berusia 1400 tahun<ref>''Haaretz'', 15 February 2010, [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1149897.html "Israel archaeologists unearth 1,400 year-old wine press"], Retrieved 3 March 2010</ref>
== Situs-situs terkenal ==
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===Ashkelon===


Archaeological excavation in [[Ashkelon]] began in 1985, led by [[Lawrence Stager]]<ref name=Ryan>Ryan, 2003, p. 105.</ref> The site contains {{convert|50|ft|m}} of accumulated rubble from successive Canaanite, [[Philistine]], Phoenician, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, and Crusader occupation. Major findings include shaft graves of pre-Phoenician Canaanites,{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}} a Bronze Age [[Vault (architecture)|vault]] and ramparts, and a silvered bronze statuette of a [[Bull (mythology)|bull calf]], assumed to be of the [[Canaan]]ite period.<ref name=Schloen>{{cite journal|title=Recent Discoveries at Ashkelon|author=David Schloen|publisher=The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago|journal=The Oriental Institute News and Notes|volume=No. 145|date=Spring 1995|url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/nn/spr95_ash.html}}</ref>

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=== Beit Alfa ===
=== Beit Alfa ===
[[Berkas:Beit_Alpha.jpg|jmpl|[[zodiak]] [[mosaik]] di Sinagoga Beit Alfa]]
[[Berkas:Beit_Alpha.jpg|jmpl|[[zodiak]] [[mosaik]] di Sinagoga Beit Alfa]]
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One of the earliest digs by Israeli archaeologists, [[Beit Alfa Synagogue|Beit Alfa]] is the site of an ancient [[Beit Alfa Synagogue|Byzantine-era synagogue]], constructed in the 5th century CE, with a three-paneled mosaic floor. An [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] inscription states that the mosaic was made at the time of Justin (apparently [[Justin I]]), who ruled from 518 to 527 CE. The mosaic is one of the most important discovered in Israel. Each of its three panels depicts a scene—the [[Ark (synagogue)|Holy Ark]], the [[zodiac]], and the story of the sacrifice of [[Isaac]]. The zodiac has the names of the twelve signs in [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]]. In the center is [[Helios]], the sun god, being whisked away in his [[chariot]] by four galloping horses. The four women in the corners of the mosaic represent the four [[season]]s.<ref name=INNPPA1>{{cite web|title=Beit Alfa Synagogue National Park (on Kibbutz Hefzibah) |publisher=Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority |accessdate=2008-02-26 |url=http://www.parks.org.il/ParksENG/company_card.php3?NewNameMade=0&from=116&CNumber=334516 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020105339/http://www.parks.org.il/ParksENG/company_card.php3?NewNameMade=0&from=116&CNumber=334516 |archivedate=2007-10-20 |df= }}</ref>

===Carmel Caves===
[[Misliya cave]], southwest of [[Mt. Carmel]], has been excavated by teams of anthropologists and archaeologists from the Archaeology Department of the [[University of Haifa]] and [[Tel Aviv University]] since 2001. In 2007, they unearthed artifacts indicative of what could be the earliest known prehistoric man. The teams uncovered hand-held stone tools and blades as well as animal bones, dating to 250,000 years ago, at the time of the [[Mousterian]] culture of [[Neanderthals]] in Europe.<ref name=Eyadat>{{cite web|title=Did prehistoric man come from Haifa?|author=Fadi Eyadat|date=10 September 2007|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/901351.html|accessdate=2008-02-24| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080209190010/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/901351.html| archivedate= 9 February 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> In January 2018 it was announced that a fragment of an early modern human jawbone with eight teeth found at Misliya cave, Israel, have been dated to around 185,000 (between 177,000 and 194,000 years ago (95% CI)).<ref>Israel Hershkovitz et al.: ''The earliest modern humans outside Africa.'' In: ''[[Science]].'' Band 359, Nr. 6374, 2018, S. 456–459, [[doi:10.1126/science.aap8369]]</ref>
This is (as of 2018) the third oldest dated early modern human remain found outside of Africa after [[Jebel Irhoud]] from Morocco dated at around 315,000 and [[Dali Man]] from China dated at around 260,000 years ago.<ref>http://www.newsweek.com/archaeology-skull-evolution-homo-sapiens-homo-erectus-human-710973</ref> Layers dating from between 250,000 and 140,000 years ago in the same cave contained tools of the [[Levallois technique|Levallois]] type which could put the date of the first migration even earlier if the tools can be associated with the modern human jawbone finds.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hershkovitz|first1=Israel|last2=Weber|first2=Gerhard W.|last3=Quam|first3=Rolf|last4=Duval|first4=Mathieu|last5=Grün|first5=Rainer|last6=Kinsley|first6=Leslie|last7=Ayalon|first7=Avner|last8=Bar-Matthews|first8=Miryam|last9=Valladas|first9=Helene|last10=Mercier|first10=Norbert|last11=Arsuaga|first11=Juan Luis|last12=Martinón-Torres|first12=María|last13=Bermúdez de Castro|first13=José María|last14=Fornai|first14=Cinzia|last15=Martín-Francés|first15=Laura|last16=Sarig|first16=Rachel|last17=May|first17=Hila|last18=Krenn|first18=Viktoria A.|last19=Slon|first19=Viviane|last20=Rodríguez|first20=Laura|last21=García|first21=Rebeca|last22=Lorenzo|first22=Carlos|last23=Carretero|first23=Jose Miguel|last24=Frumkin|first24=Amos|last25=Shahack-Gross|first25=Ruth|last26=Bar-Yosef Mayer|first26=Daniella E.|last27=Cui|first27=Yaming|last28=Wu|first28=Xinzhi|last29=Peled|first29=Natan|last30=Groman-Yaroslavski|first30=Iris|last31=Weissbrod|first31=Lior|last32=Yeshurun|first32=Reuven|last33=Tsatskin|first33=Alexander|last34=Zaidner|first34=Yossi|last35=Weinstein-Evron|first35=Mina|title=The earliest modern humans outside Africa|journal=Science|date=25 January 2018|volume=359|issue=6374|pages=456–459|doi=10.1126/science.aap8369|pmid=29371468}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Fleur|first1=Nicholas St|title=In Cave in Israel, Scientists Find Jawbone Fossil From Oldest Modern Human Out of Africa|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/25/science/jawbone-fossil-israel.html|work=The New York Times|date=2018}}</ref>

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=== Mamshit ===
=== Mamshit ===
[[Berkas:StNilusChurchMamshit.jpg|jmpl|Gereja di Mamshit]]
[[Berkas:StNilusChurchMamshit.jpg|jmpl|Gereja di Mamshit]]
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[[Mamshit]], the [[Nabatean]] city of Memphis (also known as Kurnub in Arabic), was declared a world heritage site by UNESCO on June 2005. The archaeological excavation at Mamshit uncovered the largest hoard of coins ever found in Israel: 10,500 silver coins in a bronze jar, dating to the 3rd century CE.<ref name=Dar>{{cite journal|title=Review: Negev, "The Architecture of Mampsis, 2"|author=Shimon Dar|journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review|volume=83|issue=1–2|date=July–October 1992|pages=204–207|doi=10.2307/1455124|last2=Negev|first2=Avraham|jstor=1455124}}</ref> Among the Nabatean cities found in the Negev ([[Avdat]], [[Haluza]], [[Shivta]]) Mamshit is the smallest (10 acres), but the best preserved and restored. Entire streets have survived intact, and numerous Nabatean buildings with open rooms, courtyards, and terraces have been restored. Most of the buildings were built in the late Nabatean period, in the 2nd century CE, after the Nabatean kingdom was annexed to Rome in 106 CE.
=== Tua Acre ===
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===Old Acre===
[[Berkas:Akko-Citadel.jpg|jmpl|Aula Ksatria, Acre]]
[[Berkas:Akko-Citadel.jpg|jmpl|Aula Ksatria, Acre]]
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Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001,<ref name=UNESCOAcre>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1042|title=Old City of Acre|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|year=2001|accessdate=2008-02-26| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080312090621/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1042| archivedate= 12 March 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Acre, Israel|Acre]]'s Old City has been the site of extensive archaeological excavation since the 1990s. The major find has been an underground passageway leading to a 13th-century fortress of the [[Knights Templar]]. The excavated remains of the Crusader town, dating from 1104 to 1291 CE, are well preserved, and are on display above and below the current street level.

=== Tel Rehov ===
[[Tel Rehov]] is an important Bronze and Iron Age archaeological site approximately five kilometers south of [[Beit She'an]] and three kilometers west of the Jordan River. The site represents one of the largest ancient city mounds in Israel, its surface area comprising 120,000 m² in size, divided into an "Upper City" (40,000 m²) and a "Lower City" (80,000 m²). Archaeological excavations have been conducted at Rehov since 1997, under the directorship of Amihai Mazar. The first eight seasons of excavations revealed successive occupational layers from the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age I (12th – 11th centuries BCE).<ref name=Rehov>{{cite web|publisher=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: The Institute of Archaeology|url=http://www.rehov.org/volunteer/about.htm|title=The Tel Rehov Excavations – 2008|accessdate=2008-02-28}}</ref> The Iron Age II levels of the site have emerged as a vitally important component in the current debate regarding the chronology of the [[United Monarchy]] of Israel.<ref name=Barach>{{cite web|author=Jerry Barach|publisher=Hebrew University of Jerusalem|date=April 22, 2003|url=http://www.sciteclibrary.ru/eng/catalog/pages/5062.html|title=Hebrew University Excavations Strengthen Dating of Archaeological Findings to David, Solomon|accessdate=2008-02-26}}</ref> In September 2007, 30 intact [[beehives]] dated to the mid-10th to early 9th century BCE were found.<ref name=Rehov2>{{cite web|url=http://www.rehov.org/bee.htm |title=Tel Rehov Excavations – 2007 |publisher=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: The Institute of Archaeology Hebrew University |accessdate=2008-02-26 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419153936/http://www.rehov.org/bee.htm |archivedate=2009-04-19 |df= }}</ref> The beehives are evidence of an advanced honey-producing beekeeping ([[apiculture]]) industry 3,000 years ago in the city, then thought to have a population of about 2,000. The beehives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were found in orderly rows of 100 hives. Organic material (wheat found next to the beehives) was dated using carbon-14 radiocarbon dating at the [[University of Groningen]] in the Netherlands. Also found alongside the hives was an altar decorated with fertility figurines.<ref>[http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/india-news/oldest-known-archaeological-example-of-beekeeping-discovered-in-israel_10091110.html Oldest known archaeological example of beekeeping discovered in Israel ]</ref>

=== Tel Be'er Sheva ===
A UNESCO World Heritage site since 2005, [[Tel Be'er Sheva]] is an archaeological site in southern Israel, believed to be the remains of the biblical town of [[Be'er Sheva]]. Archaeological finds indicate that the site was inhabited from the Chalcolithic period, around 4000 BCE,<ref name=jmag>[http://www.jewishmag.com/61mag/beersheva/beersheva.htm Be'er Sheva]</ref><ref name=HolylandOx>The Holy Land, Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, p.438 Oxford University Press, 1998</ref> to the 16th century CE. This was probably due to the abundance of [[Aquifer|underground water]], as evidenced by the numerous [[water wells|wells]] in the area. Excavated by Yohanan Aharoni and Ze'ev Herzog of Tel Aviv University, the settlement itself is dated to the early Israelite period.<ref name=Holladay>{{cite journal|title=Untitled Review of "Beer-Sheba I: Excavations at Tel Beer-Sheba 1969–1971 Seasons" by Yohanan Aharoni|author=John S. Holladay, Jr.|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature| volume= 96| pages=281–284|date=June 1977|issue=2|doi=10.2307/3265886|jstor=3265886}}</ref> Probably populated in the 12th century BCE, the first fortified settlement dates to 1000 BCE.<ref name=Freedmanp161/> The city was likely destroyed by [[Sennacherib]] in 700 BCE, and after a habitation hiatus of three hundred years, there is evidence of remains from the Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Early Arab periods.<ref name=Freedmanp161>Freedman, 2000, p. 161.</ref> Major finds include an elaborate water system and a huge [[cistern]]<ref name=INNPPA2>{{cite web|url=http://www.parks.org.il/ParksENG/company_card.php3?NewNameMade=0&from=116&CNumber=420938 |title=Tel Beersheva National Park |accessdate=2008-02-26 |publisher=Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927023107/http://www.parks.org.il/ParksENG/company_card.php3?NewNameMade=0&from=116&CNumber=420938 |archivedate=2007-09-27 }}</ref> carved out of the rock beneath the town, and a large horned [[altar]] which was reconstructed using several well-dressed stones found in secondary use in the walls of a later building. The altar attests to the existence of a temple or [[cult]] center in the city which was probably dismantled during the reforms of [[King Hezekiah]].<ref name=Murphyp428>Murphy-O'Connor, 1998, p. 438.</ref>

===Tel Megiddo===
A UNESCO World Heritage site since 2005, [[Tel Megiddo]] comprises twenty-six stratified layers of the ruins of ancient cities in a strategic location at the head of a pass through the [[Carmel Ridge]], which overlooks the [[Valley of Jezreel]] from the west. Megiddo has been excavated three times. The first excavations were carried out between 1903 and 1905 and a second expedition was carried out in 1925. During these excavation it was discovered that there were twenty levels of habitation, and many of the remains uncovered are preserved at the [[Rockefeller Museum]] in Jerusalem and the Oriental Institute of the [[University of Chicago]]. Yigael Yadin conducted a few small excavations in the 1960s. Since 1994, Megiddo been the subject of biannual excavation campaigns conducted by The Megiddo Expedition of Tel Aviv University, directed by Israel Finkelstein and [[David Ussishkin]], together with a consortium of international universities. A major find from digs conducted between 1927 and 1934 were the Megiddo Stables – two tripartite structures measuring 21 meters by 11 meters, believed to have been ancient stables capable of housing nearly 500 horses.

=== Beit She'arim ===
[[Beit She'arim National Park|Beit She'arim]] is an archaeological site of a Jewish town and [[necropolis]], near the town of [[Kiryat Tiv'on]], 20&nbsp;km east of [[Haifa]] in the southern foothills of the [[Lower Galilee]]. Beth She'arim was excavated by [[Benjamin Mazar]]<ref name=Maccoby>{{cite web|title=Obituary: Benjamin Mazar|publisher=The Independent|date=September 15, 1995|author=Hyam Maccoby|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19950915/ai_n14006431|accessdate=2008-02-26}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> and [[Nahman Avigad]] in the 1930s and 1950s. Most of the remains date from the 2nd to 4th century CE and include the remains of a large number of individuals buried in the more than twenty catacombs of the necropolis. Together with the images on walls and [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]], the inscriptions show that this was a Jewish necropolis.<ref name=Levine>Levine, 1998, p. 7.</ref>

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=== Gat ===
=== Gat ===
[[Berkas:Tel-Tsafit-349.jpg|jmpl|250x250px|[[Gat|Tel Tzafit]]]]
[[Berkas:Tel-Tsafit-349.jpg|jmpl|250x250px|[[Gat|Tel Tzafit]]]]
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[[Tell es-Safi]]/[[Gath (city)|Gath]] is one of the largest pre-[[classical antiquity|Classical]] sites in Israel, situated approximately halfway between [[Jerusalem]] and [[Ashkelon]], on the border between coastal plain and the Judean foothills ([[Shephelah]]). The site was settled from Prehistoric to Modern times, and was of particular importance during the Bronze and Iron Ages, and during the Crusader period. The site is identified as Canaanite and [[Philistine]] [[Gath (city)|Gath]], and during the Iron Age was one of the five main cities (the [[wikt:pentapolis|Pentapolis]]) of the [[Philistines]]. The site was excavated briefly in 1899 by the British archaeologists [[Frederick Jones Bliss]] and [[Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister]], and since 1996, by a team from [[Bar-Ilan University]] directed by [[Aren Maeir]].<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/looking-for-a-wider-view-of-history-israeli-archaeologists-are-zooming-in-1.457254 Looking for a wider view of history, Israeli archaeologists are zooming in, [[Haaretz]]]</ref> Among the noteworthy finds from the ongoing excavations are the impressive late 9th-century BCE destruction level (Stratum A3), apparently evidence of the destruction of Gath by [[Hazael]] of [[Aram (biblical region)|Aram]] (see [[II Kings]] 12:18), a unique [[siege]] system relating to this event that surrounds the site (the earliest known siege system in the world), a 10th/9th-century BCE inscription written in archaic [[alphabetic]] script, mentioning two names of [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] nature, somewhat reminiscent of the etymological origins of the name [[Goliath]], and a large stone altar with two "horns" from the 9th-century BCE destruction level – which while very similar to the biblical description of the altar in the [[Tabernacle]] (in [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 30), has only two horns (as opposed to four in other known examples), perhaps indicating a unique type of [[Philistine]] altar, perhaps influenced from [[Cyprus|Cypriot]], and perhaps [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]], culture.

=== Gezer ===
Tel [[Gezer]] is an archaeological site which sits on the western flank of the [[Shephelah]], overlooking the coastal plain of Israel, near the junction between [[Via Maris]] and the trunk road leading to Jerusalem. The [[Tell (archaeology)|tel]] consists of two mounds with a saddle between them, spanning roughly {{convert|30|acre|m2}}. A dozen inscribed boundary stones found in the vicinity verify the identification of the mound as Gezer, making it the first positively identified Biblical city. Gezer is mentioned in several ancient sources, including the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Amarna letters]]. The biblical references describe it as one of [[King Solomon|Solomon]]'s royal store cities.<ref name="AIA">{{cite web|title=Fieldwork: AFOB Online Listing – Tel Gezer Archaeological Project and Field School|publisher=Archaeological Institute of America|year=2008|accessdate=2008-02-26|url=http://www.archaeological.org/webinfo.php?page=10037&entrynumber=793|archive-url=https://archive.is/20071220023215/http://www.archaeological.org/webinfo.php?page=10037&entrynumber=793|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2007-12-20}}</ref> R.A.S. Macalister excavated Gezer from 1902 to 1909 with a one-year hiatus in 1906. Major findings include a soft [[limestone]] tablet, named the [[Gezer calendar]], which describes the agricultural chores associated with each month of the year. The calendar is written in [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|paleo-Hebrew script]], and is one of the oldest known examples of Hebrew writing, dating to the 10th century BCE. Also found was a six-chambered gate similar to those found at Hazor and Megiddo, and ten monumental [[megaliths]].

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=== Masada ===
=== Masada ===
[[Berkas:Termas_en_Masada.JPG|jmpl|200x200px|Pemandian air panas, Masada]]
[[Berkas:Termas_en_Masada.JPG|jmpl|200x200px|Pemandian air panas, Masada]]
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A UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2001, [[Masada]] is the site of ancient palaces and fortifications in the [[Southern District (Israel)]] on top of an isolated rock plateau, or large [[mesa]], on the eastern edge of the Judean Desert overlooking the Dead Sea. According to [[Josephus]], a 1st-century Jewish-Roman historian, [[Herod the Great]] fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt. Josephus also writes that in 66 CE, at the beginning of the First Jewish-Roman War against the Roman Empire, a group of Judaic extremist rebels called the [[Sicarii]] took Masada from the Roman garrison stationed there.<ref name=Cohen/> The site of Masada was identified in 1842 and extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin. Due to the remoteness from human habitation and the arid environment, the site has remained largely untouched by humans or nature during the past two millennia. Many of the ancient buildings have been restored, as have the wall-paintings of Herod's two main palaces, and the Roman-style bathhouses that he built. A synagogue thought to have been used by the Jewish rebels has also been identified and restored.<ref name=Fergusonp574>Ferguson, 2003, p. 574.</ref> Inside the synagogue, an [[ostracon]] bearing the inscription ''me'aser kohen'' ("tithe for the priest") was found, as were fragments of two [[scrolls]].<ref name=Reymond>{{cite web|publisher=Oriental Institute Research Archives|title=A Structural Analysis of Ben Sira 40:11- 44:15|author=Eric Reymond|year=1998|url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/library/dissertation/proposals/reymond.html|accessdate=2008-02-26}}</ref> Also found were eleven small ostraca, each bearing a single name. One reads "ben Yair" and could be short for Eleazar ben Yair, the commander of the fortress.<ref name=Egop230>Ego et al., 1999, p.230</ref> Excavations also uncovered the remains of 28 skeletons.<ref name=Cohen>{{cite web|title=The Credibility of Josephus|author=Shaye Cohen|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/portrait/masada.html|publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]|accessdate=2008-02-26| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080129120259/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/portrait/masada.html| archivedate= 29 January 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Carbon dating]] of [[textiles]] found in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the Revolt.<ref name=Tabor>{{cite web|title=Masada Cave 2001–2002 |author=James D. Tabor |url=http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jdtabor/masada.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040910201055/http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/masada.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2004-09-10 |date=1996–1998 |publisher=James D. Tabor |accessdate=2008-02-26 |df= }}</ref> The remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the 5th and 6th centuries CE, have also been excavated on the top of Masada.

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=== Tel Arad ===
=== Tel Arad ===
[[Berkas:Tel_Arad.JPG|jmpl|Tel Arad]]
[[Berkas:Tel_Arad.JPG|jmpl|Tel Arad]]
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[[Tel Arad]] is located west of the [[Dead Sea]], about ten kilometers west of modern [[Arad, Israel|Arad]]. Excavations at the site conducted by Israeli archaeologist [[Yohanan Aharoni]] in 1962<ref name=Aharoni>{{cite journal|title=Arad: Its Inscriptions and Temple|author=Yohanan Aharoni|journal=The Biblical Archaeologist|volume= 31| issue = 1|date=February 1968|pages=1–32|doi=10.2307/3211023|jstor=3211023|publisher=The American Schools of Oriental Research}}</ref> have unearthed an extensive early Bronze Age settlement that was completely deserted and destroyed by 2700 BCE.<ref name=Negevp43/> The site was then apparently deserted until a new settlement was founded on the southeastern ridge of the ancient city during the Iron Age II.<ref name=Negevp43>Negev and Gibson, 2001, p. 43.</ref> The major find was a garrison-town known as 'The Citadel', constructed in the time of King David and Solomon.<ref name=Bromileyp229>Bromiley, 1995, p. 229.</ref> A [[Judean]] temple, the earliest ever to be discovered in an excavation, dates back to the mid-10th century BCE.<ref name=Negevp43/> An inscription found on the site by Aharoni mentions a 'House of YHWH', which [[William G. Dever]] suggests may have referred to the temple at Arad or the temple at Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |first=Yohanan |last=Aharoni |authorlink=Yohanan Aharoni |year=1981 |title=Arad Inscriptions |publisher=Israel Exploration Society |location=University of Virginia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rnEOAAAAYAAJ}}</ref><ref>Dever, William G. ''What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archaeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company (June 2002) {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2126-3}} p.212</ref> The Arad temple was probably demolished around 700 CE, which is before the date of the inscription.<ref>King, Philip J.; Lawrence E. Stager ''Life in Biblical Israel'' Westminster/John Knox Press, U.S.; 1 edition (19 April 2002) {{ISBN|978-0-664-22148-5}} p.314</ref>

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=== Tel Dan ===
=== Tel Dan ===
[[Berkas:Tel_dan_hram.jpg|ka|jmpl|Tel Dan]]
[[Berkas:Tel_dan_hram.jpg|ka|jmpl|Tel Dan]]
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[[Tel Dan]], previously named Tell el-Qadi, is a mound where a city once stood, located at the northern tip of modern-day Israel. Finds at the site date back to the Neolithic era circa 4500 BCE, and include 0.8 meter wide walls and pottery shards. The most important find is the [[Tel Dan Stele]], a black basalt [[stele]], whose fragments were discovered in 1993 and 1994. The stele was erected by an [[Aramaean]] king and contains an Aramaic inscription to commemorate his victory over the ancient Hebrews. It has generated much excitement because the inscription includes the letters 'ביתדוד', Hebrew for "[[Davidic line|house of David]]".<ref name=Rendsburg>{{cite web|publisher=Department of Jewish Studies at McGill University|title=Down with History, Up with Reading: The Current State of Biblical Studies|author=Gary A. Rendsburg|url=http://www.arts.mcgill.ca/jewish/30yrs/rendsburg/index.html|accessdate=2008-02-26}}</ref> Proponents of that reading argue that it is the first time that the name "David" has been recognized at any archaeological site, lending evidence for the Bible account of David's kingdom. Others read the Hebrew letters 'דוד' as "beloved," "uncle" "kettle," or "a god named Dod," (all of which are possible readings of vowel-less Hebrew), and argue this is not a reference to Biblical David.<ref name=Rendsburg/>

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=== Tel Hazor ===
=== Tel Hazor ===
[[Berkas:Hatzor-HouseofPillars.jpg|jmpl|Rumah Pilar, Tel Hazor]]
[[Berkas:Hatzor-HouseofPillars.jpg|jmpl|Rumah Pilar, Tel Hazor]]
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A UNESCO World Heritage site since 2005, [[Tel Hazor]] has been excavated repeatedly since 1955. Other findings include an ancient Canaanite city, which experienced a catastrophic fire in the sometime in the 13th century BCE. The date and causes of the violent destruction of Canaanite Hazor have been an important issue ever since the first excavations of the site. One school of thought, represented by [[Yigael Yadin]], Yohanan Aharoni and Amnon Ben-Tor, dates the destruction to the later half of the 13th century, tying it to biblical descriptions in Joshua which hold the Israelites responsible for the event. The second school of thought, represented by [[Olga Tufnell]], [[Kathleen Kenyon]], P. Beck, Moshe Kochavi and [[Israel Finkelstein]], tends to support an earlier date in the first half of the 13th century, in which case there is no necessary connection between the destruction of Hazor and the process of settlement by Israelite Tribes in Cannan.<ref name=Zuckerman>{{cite web|title=The Kingdom of Hazor in the Late Bronze Age: Chronological and Regional Aspects of the Material Culture of Hazor and its Settlements|author=Sharon Zuckerman|publisher=Mt. Scopus Radio|url=http://msradio.huji.ac.il/wwwroot/zarkor/Hazor%20LateBronze%20Age.doc}}</ref> Other findings at the site include a distinctive six chambered gate dating to the Early Iron Age, as well as pottery and administrative buildings dating to either the 10th century and King Solomon or, on a lowered chronology, to the Omrides of the 9th century.

===Tzippori===
[[Image:MonaLisaOfGalilei.jpg|thumb|upright|Mosaic known as "Mona Lisa of the Galilee"]]
Excavations in [[Tzippori]], in the central Galilee region, six kilometers north-northwest of [[Nazareth]], have uncovered a rich and diverse historical and architectural legacy that includes Assyrian, Hellenistic, Judean, Babylonian, Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, Crusader, Arabic and Ottoman influences. The site is especially rich in mosaics belonging to different periods. Major findings include the remains of a 6th-century synagogue, evidence of an interesting fusion of Jewish and [[pagan]] beliefs. A Roman villa, considered the centerpiece of the discoveries, which dates to the year 200 CE, was destroyed in the [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] CE. The mosaic floor was discovered in August 1987 during an expedition led by [[Eric M. Meyers|Eric]] and [[Carol Meyers]], of [[Duke University]] digging with [[Ehud Netzer]], a locally trained archaeologist from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.<ref name=Zohar>{{cite web|title=The Mona Lisa of the Galilee beckons to wannabe archaeologists in ancient Sepphoris|author=Gil Zohar|url=http://www.jewishtribune.ca/tribune/jt-060309-26.html|publisher=Jewish Tribune|date=9 March 2006|accessdate=2008-02-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212173758/http://www.jewishtribune.ca/tribune/jt-060309-26.html|archivedate=12 February 2008|deadurl=yes|df=}}</ref> It depicts [[Dionysus]], the god of wine, socializing with [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] and [[Hercules]] in several of the 15 panels. In its center is a lifelike image of a young lady, possibly [[Venus]], which has been named "The [[Mona Lisa of the Galilee]]." Additional finds include a Roman theater on the northern slope of the hill, and the remains of a 5th-century public building, with a large and intricate mosaic floor.
<ref>[http://archaeology.huji.ac.il/zippori/RomanSeph.htm Tzippori]</ref>

===Gesher Bnot Ya'akov===
[[Bnot Ya'akov Bridge]] is a 780,000-year-old site on the banks of the [[Jordan river]] in northern Israel currently excavated by [[Naama Goren-Inbar]] of the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. First discovered in the 1930s, Bnot Ya'akov had been the site of several excavations that provided archaeologists with crucial information about how and when [[Homo erectus]] moved out of [[Africa]], most likely through the [[Levantine corridor]] that includes Israel. "One of the rarest prehistoric sites in the world," it featured a remarkable level of organic preservation that archaeologists had not encountered at any other contemporary site in [[Europe]] or [[Asia]]. In 2000, the [[Israel Antiquities Authority]] (IAA) charged the [[Sea of Galilee]] Drainage Authority (KDA) with causing "serious and irreversible damage" to the site. While the KDA had procured permission from the IAA to work in a limited area to alleviate the regular flooding of farmland in the adjacent [[Hula Valley]] under the supervision of an IAA inspector, bulldozers entered the site at night, damaging [[fossil]] remains, manmade stone [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]], and organic material.<ref name=Romey>{{cite web|title=Bulldozers in the Night|date=February 29, 2000|author=Kristin M. Romey|publisher=Archaeology: A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/jerusalem.html|accessdate=2008-02-16}}</ref>

===Ain Mallaha===
[[Ain Mallaha]], a [[Natufian]] village, colonized in three phases 12,000 to 9600 BCE, contains the earliest known archaeological evidence of dog domestication: the burial of a human being with a dog.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Davis | first1 = S.J.M. | last2 = Valla | first2 = F.R. | year = 1978 | title = Evidence for the domestication of the dog 12,000 years ago in the Natufian of Israel | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 276 | issue = 5688| pages = 608–10 | doi = 10.1038/276608a0 | bibcode = 1978Natur.276..608D }}</ref>

===Qesem cave===
In [[Qesem cave]], 400,000 years old teeth very similar to modern human teeth were found.<ref>https://io9.gizmodo.com/5719894/400000-year-old-teeth-could-rewrite-the-evolutionary-history-of-our-species</ref>

==Archaeological institutions==
During the last hundred years of Ottoman rule in Palestine, European archaeologists active in the region tended to be Christian, backed by the dominant European powers of the time and the Churches. With the transition from Ottoman to British rule over the land, the pursuit of archaeology became less political and religious in nature and instead took on a more purely historical and scientific character. After World War I (1914–1918) and the establishment of the British Mandate, archaeological institutions tended increasingly to be concentrated in the city of Jerusalem.<ref name=yba>{{cite journal|last=Ben-Aryeh |first=Yehoshua |script-title=he:המוסדות הזרים לארכאולוגיה ולחקירת ארץ־ישראל בתקופת המנדט |journal=Cathedra |date=1999 |issue=92 |url=http://www.ybz.org.il/_Uploads/dbsAttachedFiles/Article_92.6.pdf |accessdate=30 March 2013 |trans-title=The Foreign Institutions of Archeology and Exploration of the Land of Israel During the British Mandate (Tammuz 1999) |publisher=Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi |language=Hebrew |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206081713/http://www.ybz.org.il/_Uploads/dbsAttachedFiles/Article_92.6.pdf |archivedate=6 February 2015 |df= }}</ref>{{Rp|135–136}}

In 1913–1914 the Society for the Reclamation of Antiquities was established by the [[Yishuv]]'s intellectual elite. Among its founder were Avraham Yaakov Brawer, David Yellin and Aharon Meir Mazie. The Society changed its name to the Jewish Palestine Exploration Society in 1920 and later to the Israel Exploration Society.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hasson|first=Nir|title=Israel's archeological triumphs through the eyes of a man who was always there|url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/israel-s-archeological-triumphs-through-the-eyes-of-a-man-who-was-always-there.premium-1.512460|accessdate=30 March 2013|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|date=29 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=About the Israel Exploration Society|url=http://israelexplorationsociety.huji.ac.il/ies.html|publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]]|accessdate=30 March 2013}}</ref>

The [[British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem]] began operating in 1921, after [[R. A. Stewart Macalister]] and [[Duncan Mackenzie]] of the Palestine Exploration Fund appealed to the British government for the establishment of a local antiquities authority. Macalister and Mackenzie expressed concern over the dangers posed to archaeological sites on account of the battles being fought throughout the land. Mackenzie was also wary of [[fellahin]] raiding archaeological sites and stealing artifacts.<ref name=yba />{{Rp|140}}

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Institute of Archaeology was founded in 1926. In 1934 Hebrew University opened its Department of Archaeology, which it considers "the birthplace of Israeli archaeology."<ref>{{cite web|title=Institute of Archaeology – History|url=http://archaeology.huji.ac.il/about/history.asp|publisher=[[The Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]|accessdate=30 March 2013}}</ref> The Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology was established in 1969.<ref>{{cite web|title=About us – Institute|url=http://archaeology.tau.ac.il/?page_id=608|publisher=[[Tel Aviv University]]|accessdate=30 March 2013}}</ref>

After the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the British Mandatory Department of Antiquities, housed at the [[Rockefeller Museum]], became the Department of Antiquities of the State of Israel. In 1990 the Department of Antiquities became the Israel Antiquities Authority, an autonomous government authority charged with responsibility for all the country's antiquities and authorized to excavate, preserve, conserve and administrate antiquities as necessary.<ref>{{cite web|title=From the Israel Department of Antiquities to the Founding of the Israel Antiquities Authority|url=http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=38&subj_id=154#MMMas|publisher=[[Israel Antiquities Authority]]|accessdate=30 March 2013|author=Baruch, Yuval|last2=Kudish Vashdi |first2=Rachel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=IAA Law|url=http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=45&subj_id=220&autotitle=true&Module_id=7|publisher=[[Israel Antiquities Authority]]|accessdate=30 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Lidman|first=Melanie|title=Israel Antiquities digitalizes archives|url=http://www.jpost.com/National-News/Israel-Antiquities-digitalizes-archives|accessdate=30 March 2013|newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=16 January 2013}}</ref>

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== Arkeolog Israel terkemuka ==
== Arkeolog Israel terkemuka ==
Baris 110: Baris 263:
* [[Yigael Yadin]] (1917-1984)
* [[Yigael Yadin]] (1917-1984)
* Amir Drori (1937-2005), pendiri Israel Antiquities Authority pada tahun 1990
* Amir Drori (1937-2005), pendiri Israel Antiquities Authority pada tahun 1990
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==New technologies==
Israeli archaeologists have developed a method of detecting objects buried dozens of meters underground using a combination of seven technologies, among them echomagnetic soundings, radio transmissions and temperature measurements, able to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant objects such as pipes in the ground.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israeli-scientists-get-heads-up-on-underground-archaeological-digs-1.349009 Israeli scientists get heads up on underground archaeological digs, [[Haaretz]]]</ref>

== Politicisation of archaeology ==
''More information'': [[Politics of archaeology in Israel and Palestine]]
[[File:South Temple Mount.jpg|thumb|450px|Excavations outside the southern wall of the Temple Mount]]
Archaeological research and preservation efforts have been exploited by both Palestinians and Israelis for partisan ends.<ref name=Adam>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsrcpress.ac.za/downloadpdf.php?pdffile=files%2FPDF%2F2016%2F2016_00_Peacemaking_in_Divided_Societies.pdf&downloadfilename=Peace-Making%20in%20Divided%20Societies%20-%20Peace-making%20in%20Divided%20Societies%20-%20Entire%20eBook|format=PDF|accessdate=July 12, 2011|title=Peace-Making in Divided Societies – The Israel-South Africa Analogy|last=Heibert|first=Adam|year=2002|issn=1684-2839|publisher=Human Sciences Research Council Publishers|location=Cape Town, South Africa|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924031632/http://www.hsrcpress.ac.za/downloadpdf.php?pdffile=files%2FPDF%2F2016%2F2016_00_Peacemaking_in_Divided_Societies.pdf&downloadfilename=Peace-Making%20in%20Divided%20Societies%20-%20Peace-making%20in%20Divided%20Societies%20-%20Entire%20eBook|archive-date=September 24, 2015|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Rather than attempting to understand "the natural process of [[demolition]], eradication, rebuilding, evasion, and ideological reinterpretation that has permitted ancient rulers and modern groups to claim exclusive possession," archaeologists have instead become active participants in the battle over partisan memory, with the result that archaeology, a seemingly objective science, has exacerbated the ongoing [[nationalism|nationalist]] dispute. Silberman concludes: "The digging continues. Claims and counterclaims about exclusive historical 'ownership' weave together the random acts of violence of bifurcated collective memory." Adam and Moodley conclude their investigation into this issue by writing that, "Both sides remain prisoners of their mythologized past."<ref name=Adam />

As an example of this process, an archaeological tunnel running the length of the western side of the [[Temple Mount]], as it is known to [[Jew]]s, or the [[Haram al-Sharif]], as it is known to [[Islam|Muslims]], became a serious point of contestation in 1996. The tunnel had been in place for about a dozen years, but open conflict broke out after the government of [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] decided to open a new entrance to the tunnel from the [[Via Dolorosa]] in the Muslim quarter of the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]]. Palestinians and the Islamic [[Waqf]] authorities were outraged that the decision was taken without prior consultation. They claimed that the work threatened the foundations of the compound and those of houses in the Muslim quarter and that it was actually aimed at tunnelling under the holy compound complex to find remains of [[Solomon's Temple]], similar to previous accusations in the 1980s. As a result of the rumor, Arabs rioted in Jerusalem and then spread to the West Bank, leading to the deaths of 86 Palestinians and 15 Israeli soldiers.<ref name=Ross>Ross, 2007, pp. 156–157.</ref>

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== Kerusakan situs ==
== Kerusakan situs ==
[[Berkas:1900s_Jerusalem_old_city.jpg|jmpl|Kota Tua Yerusalem pada awal abad ke-20. [[Bagian Yahudi (Yerusalem)|Jewish quarter]] adalah di bagian bawah gambar. Dua kubah besar adalah [[Sinagoga Hurva]] dan Sinagoga Tiferes Yisrael, keduanya dihancurkan oleh Yordania pada tahun 1948]]
[[Berkas:1900s_Jerusalem_old_city.jpg|jmpl|Kota Tua Yerusalem pada awal abad ke-20. [[Bagian Yahudi (Yerusalem)|Jewish quarter]] adalah di bagian bawah gambar. Dua kubah besar adalah [[Sinagoga Hurva]] dan Sinagoga Tiferes Yisrael, keduanya dihancurkan oleh Yordania pada tahun 1948]]
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From 1948–1967, the Jordanian authorities and military forces engaged in what was described as "calculated destruction" in the [[Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem)|Jewish Quarter]] of the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]].<ref name=UNISPAL>{{cite web|title=Letter dated 5 March 1968 from the permanent Representative of Israel to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General |url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.nsf/85255a0a0010ae82852555340060479d/a8138ad15b0fcac385256b920059debf!OpenDocument |date=6 March 1968 |accessdate=2008-02-19 |publisher=[[United Nations]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216154111/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/85255a0a0010ae82852555340060479d/a8138ad15b0fcac385256b920059debf%21OpenDocument |archivedate=16 February 2007 |df= }}</ref> In a letter to the [[United Nations]], Yosef Tekoa, Israel's representative to the UN, protested Jordan's "policy of wanton vandalism, desecration and violation,"<ref name=UNISPAL /> in which all the synagogues in the Old City apart from one were blown up or used as stables.<ref name=Gold>Gold, 2007, p. 157</ref> A road was cut through the ancient historic Jewish graveyard on the [[Mount of Olives]], and tens of thousands of tombstones, some dating from as early as 1 BCE, were torn out, broken or used as flagstones, steps and building materials in Jordanian military installations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sachar|first=Howard M.|authorlink1=Howard Sachar |title=A History of Israel: from the Rise of Zionism to our Time|year=2007|publisher=Alfred A Knopf|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-375-71132-9|edition=3rd|page=436|quote=...a road was cut through the Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives, and the headstones of Jewish graves there were used for building purposes, some of them footpaths to army latrines.}}</ref>

The Old City of Jerusalem and its walls were added to the [[List of World Heritage in Danger]] in 1982, after it was nominated for inclusion by [[Jordan]].<ref name=WHS>{{cite web|date=17 January 1983|title=United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Convention Concerning the Protestion of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|accessdate=2008-02-20|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/repcom82.htm#jerusalem| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080316130827/http://whc.unesco.org/archive/repcom82.htm| archivedate= 16 March 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Noting the "severe destruction followed by a rapid urbanization," UNESCO determined that the site met "the criteria proposed for the inscription of properties on the List of World Heritage in Danger as they apply to both 'ascertained danger' and 'potential danger'."<ref name=WHS />

Work carried out by the Islamic Waqf since the late 1990s to convert two ancient underground structures into a new mosque on the Temple Mount damaged archaeological artifacts in the area of [[Solomon's Stables]] and the [[Huldah Gates]].<ref name=Shanks>{{cite web|title=Opinion:Biblical Destruction|author=Hershel Shanks|date=18 July 2008|accessdate=2008-02-19|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118472091594669763?mod=opinion&ojcontent=otep|publisher=Wall Street Journal}}</ref><ref name=Chabin>{{cite web|title=Archaeologists Campaign to Stop Desecration of Temple Mount|author=Michele Chabin|date=11 July 2006|url=http://www.juf.org/news/israel.aspx?id=10300|accessdate=2008-02-19|publisher=[[Jewish United Fund]]}}</ref><ref name=Amiel>{{cite web|title=The Destruction of the Temple Mount Antiquities|author=Mark Ami-El|url=http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp483.htm|accessdate=2008-02-19|date=1 August 2002|publisher=[[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303140138/http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp483.htm|archivedate=3 March 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl=no}}</ref> From October 1999 to January 2000, the Waqf authorities in Jerusalem opened an emergency exit to the newly renovated underground mosque, in the process digging a pit measuring {{convert|18000|sqft|m2|0}} and {{convert|36|ft|m|0}} deep. The [[Israel Antiquities Authority]] (IAA) expressed concern over the damage sustained to Muslim-period structures within the compound. Jon Seligman, a [[Jerusalem District]] archaeologist told ''Archaeology'' magazine that, "It was clear to the IAA that an emergency exit [at the Marwani Mosque] was necessary, but in the best situation, [[salvage archaeology]] would have been performed first."<ref name=Romey-a>{{cite journal|title=Jerusalem's Temple Mount Flap|volume= 53|issue=2|date=March–April 2000|author=Kristin M. Romey|journal=Archaeology: A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America|url=http://www.archaeology.org/0003/newsbriefs/flap.html|accessdate=2008-02-16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317153427/http://www.archaeology.org/0003/newsbriefs/flap.html|archivedate=17 March 2008 <!--DASHBot-->|deadurl=no}}</ref> Seligman said that the lack of archaeological supervision "has meant a great loss to all of humanity. It was an archaeological crime."<ref name=Chabin />

Artifacts from the [[First Temple]] Period (c. 960 – 586 BC) were destroyed when the thousands of tons of ancient fill from the site were dumped in the [[Kidron Valley]] and Jerusalem's municipal garbage dump, making it impossible to conduct archaeological examination.<ref name=Amiel />

The 2011 annual report of the Israeli State Comptroller criticized Waqf renovations on the Temple Mount, which were carried out without permits and employed mechanical tools that caused damage to archaeological relics.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/waqf-temple-mount-excavation-damaged-archaeological-relics-1.362332 'Waqf Temple Mount excavation damaged archaeological relics']</ref>

In 2012, Bedouin gold-diggers irreversibly damaged the walls of a 2,000-year-old well located under a Crusader structure at Be'er Limon, near [[Beit Shemesh]].<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4173467,00.html "Gold diggers ravage archeological site"], ''Ynetnews''</ref>

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== Lihat pula ==
== Lihat pula ==
Baris 122: Baris 303:
* Sejarah Palestina
* Sejarah Palestina
* [[Daftar artefak terkait Alkitab|Daftar artefak dalam arkeologi alkitab]]
* [[Daftar artefak terkait Alkitab|Daftar artefak dalam arkeologi alkitab]]
* Near Eastern archaeology|Arkeologi Timur Dekat
* [[:en:Near Eastern archaeology|Arkeologi Timur Dekat]]
* Southern Levant|Levant Selatan<br />
* [[:en:Southern Levant|Levant Selatan]]
* Temple Mount Sifting Project
* [[:en:Temple Mount Sifting Project|Temple Mount Sifting Project]]


== Referensi ==
== Referensi ==
Baris 139: Baris 320:
* [http://individual.utoronto.ca/mfkolarcik/jesuit/richardhess.htm Awal Israel di Kanaan]
* [http://individual.utoronto.ca/mfkolarcik/jesuit/richardhess.htm Awal Israel di Kanaan]
* [http://assets.cambridge.org/052181/4871/frontmatter/0521814871_frontmatter.pdf Pada Masa Romawi Galilea, mayoritas penduduk adalah orang Yahudi. Mereka akur dan kadang-kadang juga berjuang]
* [http://assets.cambridge.org/052181/4871/frontmatter/0521814871_frontmatter.pdf Pada Masa Romawi Galilea, mayoritas penduduk adalah orang Yahudi. Mereka akur dan kadang-kadang juga berjuang]
* Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs – [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early+History+-+Archaeology/Cumulative+table+of+contents+-+Archeological+Sites.htm indeks situs arkeologi di Israel]
* Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs – [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early+History+-+Archaeology/Cumulative+table+of+contents+-+Archeological+Sites.htm Indeks situs arkeologi di Israel]

Revisi per 7 Agustus 2018 20.47

Bagian dari seri mengenai
Sejarah Israel
Tembok Barat, Yerusalem
Israel kuno dan Yudea
Zaman Bait Allah Kedua (530 SM–70 M)
Abad Pertengahan (70–1517)
Kekuasaan Ottoman dan Inggris (1517–1948)
Negara Israel (1948–sekarang)
Sejarah Tanah Israel menurut topik
Hal terkait
Reruntuhan Beit she'an
Sarkofagus Helenistik yang ditemukan di Ashkelon

Arkeologi Israel adalah kajian arkeologi di wilayah Israel masa kini, yang terentang dari zaman prasejarah melalui tiga ribu tahun sejarah yang didokumentasikan. Tanah Israel Kuno merupakan jembatan geografis antara pusat-pusat politik dan budaya: Mesopotamia dan Mesir. Meskipun nilai penting negara ini untuk tiga agama besar, penelitian arkeologi serius baru dimulai pada abad ke-15.[1] Pekerjaan besar utama pada benda-benda antik Israel dilakukan oleh Adriaan Reland yang menulis Palestina ex monumentis veteribus, diterbitkan pada tahun 1709. Edward Robinson, seorang teolog Amerika mengunjungi negara itu pada tahun 1838, menerbitkan studi topografi pertama. Lady Hester Stanhope melakukan modern pertama penggalian di Askelon pada tahun 1815. Ilmuwan Prancis, Louis Felicien de Saucy, memulai awal penggalian "modern" pada tahun 1850. Ketika membahas keadaan arkeologi di Israel dalam zamannya, David Ussishkin berkomentar pada tahun 1980-an bahwa sebutan "arkeologi Israel" tidak lagi mewakili satu pendekatan metodologis seragam; sebaliknya, ruang lingkupnya meliputi berbagai bidang arkeologi, disiplin ilmu, konsep, dan metode yang saat ini ada di Israel.[2]

Periode waktu arkeologi

Periode paleolitik

Paleolitik Bawah

Awal Paleolitik Bawah di Israel didefinisikan oleh penemuan arkeologi awal yang tersedia. Kadang-kadang, ketika masih baru, ditemukan situs yang lebih kuno, sehingga batas periode ini didefinisikan ulang. Saat ini situs yang paling kuno di Israel, dan salah satu yang paling awal di luar Afrika, adalah Ubeidiya, di Lembah Yordan. Umurnya diperkirakan antara 1.55 dan 1,2 juta tahun BP. Banyak alat-alat batu dari budaya Acheulean telah ditemukan di sana. Di antara situs lainnya dari periode ini adalah situs di Daughters of Jacob Bridge, yang bertarikh 790,000 BP, diperkirakan menggunakan Paleomagnetisme. Beberapa bukti-bukti awal penggunaan api dan alat-alat kayu telah ditemukan di situs ini.


Kerangka wanita dari periode paleolitik

Periode neolitik

Makam Natufian, aliran Nahal Me'arot, Israel

Periode Neolitik tampaknya telah dimulai ketika orang-orang dari budaya Natufian, yang tersebar di seluruh Suriah, Israel dan Lebanon masa kini, mulai mempraktekkan pertanian. Revolusi Neolitik ini telah dikaitkan dengan periode dingin yang dikenal sebagai Younger Dryas. Pertanian di Levant adalah yang paling awal diketahui telah dipraktekkan. Periode Neolitik di wilayah ini bertarikh 8500-4300 SM dan Chalcolithic 4300-3300 SM. Istilah "Natufian" diciptakan oleh Dorothy Garrod pada tahun 1928, setelah mengidentifikasi urutan arkeologi di Wadi al-Natuf yang termasuk lapisan dan deposit bertingkat-tingkat dari zaman Levallois-Mousterian akhir, Mesolitik Palestina, yang berisi jejak arang dan industri perkakas flint mikrolitik.[3] Situs-situs Natufian di Israel meliputi Ain Mallaha, el-Wad, Ein Gev, gua Hayonim, Nahal Oren dan Kfar HaHoresh.

Periode Chalcolithic

Zaman perunggu / periode Kanaan

Patung terakota dari Zaman Perunggu Pertengahan, Museum Maritim Nasional Israel

Zaman Perunggu adalah periode 3300-1200 SM ketika benda-benda yang terbuat dari perunggu banyak digunakan. Banyak penulis telah mengkaitkan sejarah Levant dari Zaman Perunggu dan seterusnya sampai peristiwa yang dijelaskan dalam Alkitab. Zaman Perunggu, dan Zaman Besi bersama-sama kadang-kadang disebut "periode Alkitab" ("Biblical period").[4] Periode dari Zaman Perunggu seperti berikut:

  • Zaman Perunggu Awal I (Early Bronze I; EB I) 3330-3050 SM
  • Zaman Perunggu Awal II–III (EB II–III) 3050-2300 SM
  • Zaman Perunggu Awal IV/Zaman Perunggu Tengah I (EB IV/MB I; Middle Bronze I) 2300-2000 SM
  • Zaman Perunggu Tengah IIA (MB IIA) 2000-1750 SM
  • Zaman Perunggu Tengah IIB (MB IIB) 1800-1550 SM
  • Zaman Perunggu Akhir I–II (Late Bronze; LB I–II) 1550-1200 SM

Zaman Perunggu Akhir ditandai dengan adanya negara-negara kota, yang dari waktu ke waktu didominasi oleh Mesir sampai invasi terakhir oleh Merneptah pada tahun 1207 SM. Surat Amarna memuat contoh dari suatu periode tertentu dalam Zaman Perunggu Akhir ketika raja-raja taklukan di Levant berhubungan dengan penguasa mereka di Mesir.

Zaman besi / periode Israel

Surat-surat Lakhis.

Zaman Besi di Levant dimulai pada sekitar 1200 SM, setelah Akhir Zaman Perunggu Runtuh, ketika alat-alat besi mulai digunakan. Dikenal juga sebagai periode Israel. Beragam temuan arkeologi yang kaya membuktikan kaitan dan hubungan perdagangan.internasional yang kuat. Dalam periode ini baik bukti-bukti arkeologi dan narasi bukti-bukti dari Alkitab menjadi lebih kaya dan banyak tulisan telah berusaha menjelaskan hubungan di antara keduanya. Kronologi meliputi:

  • Zaman Besi I (IA I) 1200-1000 SM
  • Zaman Besi IIA (IA IIA) 1000-925 SM
  • Zaman Besi IIB-C (IA IIB-C) 925-586 SM
  • Zaman Besi III 586-539 SM (periode Neo-Babel)

Pandangan tradisional, yang dipersonifikasikan oleh para arkeolog seperti Albright dan Wright, menerima dengan setia peristiwa-peristiwa alkitabiah sebagai sejarah, tetapi hal ini telah dipertanyakan oleh "Alkitab minimalis" seperti Niels Peter Lemche, Thomas L. Thompson dan Philip R. Davies. Israel Finkelstein[5] berpendapat bahwa kerajaan Daud dan Salomo (Kerajaan Bersatu) tidak pernah ada dan Yehuda tidak dalam posisi untuk mendukung keadaan yang diperpanjang sampai awal abad ke-8. Finklestein menerima keberadaan Raja Daud dan Salomo tapi meragukan kronologi, signifikansi dan pengaruh mereka seperti yang dijelaskan dalam Alkitab.[6] Tanpa mengklaim bahwa segala sesuatu dalam Alkitab akurat secara historis, beberapa unsur-unsur cerita non-supranatural ditemukan benar sesuai dengan artefak fisik dan temuan arkeologi lainnya. Prasasti-prasasti seperti Prasasti Tel Dan dan Batu Moab (Mesha Stele) dapat ditelusuri ke budaya non-Ibrani asalnya.

Kerajaan Israel Dan Yehuda

Periode Persia

Koin Yehud memuat tulisan 'YHD' (יהד), dari periode Persia

Periode Helenistik

Terompet Tempat prasasti, sebuah batu dengan tulisan Ibrani "Ke tempat Terompet" yang digali di bagian selatan kaki Bukit Bait Suci.

Periode Romawi

Gulungan naskah Laut Mati memuat Kitab Mazmur, dengan transkripsi

Periode Romawi mencakup tahun 63 SM sampai 330 M, sejak Pompey Agung memasukkan wilayah tersebut ke dalam Republik Romawi sampai pengadopsian Kekristenan sebagai agama imperial Romawi. Periode Romawi itu sendiri memiliki beberapa tahap:

  • Periode Romawi Awal (termasuk periode Herodian) tahun 63 SM sampai 70 M
  • Periode Romawi Tengah: 70-135 M (periode Perang Yahudi-Romawi); 135-200 M (periode Mishnaic)
  • Periode Romawi Akhir: 200-330 M (periode Talmud)

Akhir Periode Romawi Tengah menandai berakhirnya dominasi budaya Yahudi di Yudea, tetapi juga dimulainya Yudaisme Rabinik melalui Rabbi Yochanan Ben Zakai di kota Yamnia. Oleh karena itu, Periode Romawi Akhir ini juga disebut Periode Yavne.[butuh rujukan]

Koin dari periode Bar Kokhba, (periode Romawi)

Situs arkeologi terkemuka dari periode Romawi meliputi:

Periode Bizantium

Periode Bizantium meliputi tahun-tahun 330-638 M, sejak pengadopsian agama Kristen oleh Roma sampai ke penaklukan Palestina oleh orang Muslim. Transisi dari periode Romawi ke periode Bizantium bertepatan dengan pertumbuhan luas dana imperial untuk membangun lembaga-lembaga keagamaan Kristen di daerah itu, sering dengan transformasi bangunan-bangunan pagan yang lebih tua.[9] Sepertiga 40.000 benda-benda yang setiap tahunnya didapatkan dari penggalian arkeologi di Israel membuktikan kehadiran Kristen kuno di daerah tersebut.[10]

Temuan dari periode Bizantium meliputi:

  • Gereja periode Bizantium di perbukitan Yerusalem.[11][12]
  • Jalan periode Bizantium di Yerusalem[13]
  • Pemerasan anggur berusia 1400 tahun[14]

Situs-situs terkenal

Beit Alfa

zodiak mosaik di Sinagoga Beit Alfa

| deadurl= no}}</ref> In January 2018 it was announced that a fragment of an early modern human jawbone with eight teeth found at Misliya cave, Israel, have been dated to around 185,000 (between 177,000 and 194,000 years ago (95% CI)).[15] This is (as of 2018) the third oldest dated early modern human remain found outside of Africa after Jebel Irhoud from Morocco dated at around 315,000 and Dali Man from China dated at around 260,000 years ago.[16] Layers dating from between 250,000 and 140,000 years ago in the same cave contained tools of the Levallois type which could put the date of the first migration even earlier if the tools can be associated with the modern human jawbone finds.[17][18]

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Mamshit

Gereja di Mamshit

Old Acre

Aula Ksatria, Acre

| deadurl= no}}</ref> Acre's Old City has been the site of extensive archaeological excavation since the 1990s. The major find has been an underground passageway leading to a 13th-century fortress of the Knights Templar. The excavated remains of the Crusader town, dating from 1104 to 1291 CE, are well preserved, and are on display above and below the current street level.

Tel Rehov

Tel Rehov is an important Bronze and Iron Age archaeological site approximately five kilometers south of Beit She'an and three kilometers west of the Jordan River. The site represents one of the largest ancient city mounds in Israel, its surface area comprising 120,000 m² in size, divided into an "Upper City" (40,000 m²) and a "Lower City" (80,000 m²). Archaeological excavations have been conducted at Rehov since 1997, under the directorship of Amihai Mazar. The first eight seasons of excavations revealed successive occupational layers from the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age I (12th – 11th centuries BCE).[19] The Iron Age II levels of the site have emerged as a vitally important component in the current debate regarding the chronology of the United Monarchy of Israel.[20] In September 2007, 30 intact beehives dated to the mid-10th to early 9th century BCE were found.[21] The beehives are evidence of an advanced honey-producing beekeeping (apiculture) industry 3,000 years ago in the city, then thought to have a population of about 2,000. The beehives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were found in orderly rows of 100 hives. Organic material (wheat found next to the beehives) was dated using carbon-14 radiocarbon dating at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. Also found alongside the hives was an altar decorated with fertility figurines.[22]

Tel Be'er Sheva

A UNESCO World Heritage site since 2005, Tel Be'er Sheva is an archaeological site in southern Israel, believed to be the remains of the biblical town of Be'er Sheva. Archaeological finds indicate that the site was inhabited from the Chalcolithic period, around 4000 BCE,[23][24] to the 16th century CE. This was probably due to the abundance of underground water, as evidenced by the numerous wells in the area. Excavated by Yohanan Aharoni and Ze'ev Herzog of Tel Aviv University, the settlement itself is dated to the early Israelite period.[25] Probably populated in the 12th century BCE, the first fortified settlement dates to 1000 BCE.[26] The city was likely destroyed by Sennacherib in 700 BCE, and after a habitation hiatus of three hundred years, there is evidence of remains from the Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Early Arab periods.[26] Major finds include an elaborate water system and a huge cistern[27] carved out of the rock beneath the town, and a large horned altar which was reconstructed using several well-dressed stones found in secondary use in the walls of a later building. The altar attests to the existence of a temple or cult center in the city which was probably dismantled during the reforms of King Hezekiah.[28]

Tel Megiddo

A UNESCO World Heritage site since 2005, Tel Megiddo comprises twenty-six stratified layers of the ruins of ancient cities in a strategic location at the head of a pass through the Carmel Ridge, which overlooks the Valley of Jezreel from the west. Megiddo has been excavated three times. The first excavations were carried out between 1903 and 1905 and a second expedition was carried out in 1925. During these excavation it was discovered that there were twenty levels of habitation, and many of the remains uncovered are preserved at the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Yigael Yadin conducted a few small excavations in the 1960s. Since 1994, Megiddo been the subject of biannual excavation campaigns conducted by The Megiddo Expedition of Tel Aviv University, directed by Israel Finkelstein and David Ussishkin, together with a consortium of international universities. A major find from digs conducted between 1927 and 1934 were the Megiddo Stables – two tripartite structures measuring 21 meters by 11 meters, believed to have been ancient stables capable of housing nearly 500 horses.

Beit She'arim

Beit She'arim is an archaeological site of a Jewish town and necropolis, near the town of Kiryat Tiv'on, 20 km east of Haifa in the southern foothills of the Lower Galilee. Beth She'arim was excavated by Benjamin Mazar[29] and Nahman Avigad in the 1930s and 1950s. Most of the remains date from the 2nd to 4th century CE and include the remains of a large number of individuals buried in the more than twenty catacombs of the necropolis. Together with the images on walls and sarcophagi, the inscriptions show that this was a Jewish necropolis.[30]

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Gat

Tel Tzafit

Masada

Pemandian air panas, Masada

| deadurl= no}}</ref> Carbon dating of textiles found in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the Revolt.[31] The remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the 5th and 6th centuries CE, have also been excavated on the top of Masada.

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Tel Arad

Tel Arad

Tel Dan

Tel Dan

Tel Hazor

Rumah Pilar, Tel Hazor

Arkeolog Israel terkemuka

  • Eleazar Sukenik (1889-1953)
  • Benjamin Mazar (1906-1995), bapak pendiri arkeologi Israel [32]
  • Yigael Yadin (1917-1984)
  • Amir Drori (1937-2005), pendiri Israel Antiquities Authority pada tahun 1990

Kerusakan situs

Kota Tua Yerusalem pada awal abad ke-20. Jewish quarter adalah di bagian bawah gambar. Dua kubah besar adalah Sinagoga Hurva dan Sinagoga Tiferes Yisrael, keduanya dihancurkan oleh Yordania pada tahun 1948

| deadurl= no}}</ref> Noting the "severe destruction followed by a rapid urbanization," UNESCO determined that the site met "the criteria proposed for the inscription of properties on the List of World Heritage in Danger as they apply to both 'ascertained danger' and 'potential danger'."[33]

Work carried out by the Islamic Waqf since the late 1990s to convert two ancient underground structures into a new mosque on the Temple Mount damaged archaeological artifacts in the area of Solomon's Stables and the Huldah Gates.[34][35][36] From October 1999 to January 2000, the Waqf authorities in Jerusalem opened an emergency exit to the newly renovated underground mosque, in the process digging a pit measuring 18.000 square feet (1.672 m2) and 36 kaki (11 m) deep. The Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) expressed concern over the damage sustained to Muslim-period structures within the compound. Jon Seligman, a Jerusalem District archaeologist told Archaeology magazine that, "It was clear to the IAA that an emergency exit [at the Marwani Mosque] was necessary, but in the best situation, salvage archaeology would have been performed first."[37] Seligman said that the lack of archaeological supervision "has meant a great loss to all of humanity. It was an archaeological crime."[35]

Artifacts from the First Temple Period (c. 960 – 586 BC) were destroyed when the thousands of tons of ancient fill from the site were dumped in the Kidron Valley and Jerusalem's municipal garbage dump, making it impossible to conduct archaeological examination.[36]

The 2011 annual report of the Israeli State Comptroller criticized Waqf renovations on the Temple Mount, which were carried out without permits and employed mechanical tools that caused damage to archaeological relics.[38]

In 2012, Bedouin gold-diggers irreversibly damaged the walls of a 2,000-year-old well located under a Crusader structure at Be'er Limon, near Beit Shemesh.[39]

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Lihat pula

Referensi

  1. ^ Encyclopedia of Zionism and Israel, edited by Raphael Patai, Herzl Press and McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971, vol. I, p.66-71
  2. ^ Ussishkin, David (Spring 1982). "Where is Israeli archeology going?". Biblical Archaeologist. 45 (2): 93. 
  3. ^ New fieldwork at Shuqba Cave and in Wadi en-Natuf, Western Judea Error in webarchive template: Check |url= value. Empty.
  4. ^ Dates for Biblical Period follow Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible (New York: Doubleday 1990). ISBN 0-385-23970-X.
  5. ^ Israel Finkelstein, Professor of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University Web page
  6. ^ "Shifting Ground In The Holy Land", Smithsonian Magazine
  7. ^ Urquhart, Conal (2007-05-08). "King Herod's grave uncovered in hilltop fortress". The Guardian. London. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-25. 
  8. ^ http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Israel+beyond+politics/Findings-strengthen-identification-of-Herods%20grave%2019-Nov-2008
  9. ^ Doron Bar 'The Christianisation of Rural Palestine during_Late Antiquity,' Journal of Ecclesiastical History, Vol. 54, No. 3 July 2003 pp.401–421
  10. ^ Associated Press,'Burial Boxes Marked With Jesus' Name Revealed in Jerusalem Archaeological Warehouse,' Haaretz 20 March 2017.
  11. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Press release from 11 March 2009, "Byzantine period church exposed in Moshav Nes-Harim" Retrieved 24 February 2010
  12. ^ Haaretz – article from 11 March 2009, "Archaeologists discover Byzantine-era church in Jerusalem hills" Retrieved 24 February 2010
  13. ^ MSNBC – article by Shira Rubin, February 10, 2010 "Byzantine-era street found in Jerusalem" Retrieved 24 February 2010
  14. ^ Haaretz, 15 February 2010, "Israel archaeologists unearth 1,400 year-old wine press", Retrieved 3 March 2010
  15. ^ Israel Hershkovitz et al.: The earliest modern humans outside Africa. In: Science. Band 359, Nr. 6374, 2018, S. 456–459, doi:10.1126/science.aap8369
  16. ^ http://www.newsweek.com/archaeology-skull-evolution-homo-sapiens-homo-erectus-human-710973
  17. ^ Hershkovitz, Israel; Weber, Gerhard W.; Quam, Rolf; Duval, Mathieu; Grün, Rainer; Kinsley, Leslie; Ayalon, Avner; Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Valladas, Helene; Mercier, Norbert; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; Martinón-Torres, María; Bermúdez de Castro, José María; Fornai, Cinzia; Martín-Francés, Laura; Sarig, Rachel; May, Hila; Krenn, Viktoria A.; Slon, Viviane; Rodríguez, Laura; García, Rebeca; Lorenzo, Carlos; Carretero, Jose Miguel; Frumkin, Amos; Shahack-Gross, Ruth; Bar-Yosef Mayer, Daniella E.; Cui, Yaming; Wu, Xinzhi; Peled, Natan; Groman-Yaroslavski, Iris; Weissbrod, Lior; Yeshurun, Reuven; Tsatskin, Alexander; Zaidner, Yossi; Weinstein-Evron, Mina (25 January 2018). "The earliest modern humans outside Africa". Science. 359 (6374): 456–459. doi:10.1126/science.aap8369. PMID 29371468. 
  18. ^ Fleur, Nicholas St (2018). "In Cave in Israel, Scientists Find Jawbone Fossil From Oldest Modern Human Out of Africa". The New York Times. 
  19. ^ "The Tel Rehov Excavations – 2008". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: The Institute of Archaeology. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-28. 
  20. ^ Jerry Barach (April 22, 2003). "Hebrew University Excavations Strengthen Dating of Archaeological Findings to David, Solomon". Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-26. 
  21. ^ "Tel Rehov Excavations – 2007". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: The Institute of Archaeology Hebrew University. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2009-04-19. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-26. 
  22. ^ Oldest known archaeological example of beekeeping discovered in Israel
  23. ^ Be'er Sheva
  24. ^ The Holy Land, Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, p.438 Oxford University Press, 1998
  25. ^ John S. Holladay, Jr. (June 1977). "Untitled Review of "Beer-Sheba I: Excavations at Tel Beer-Sheba 1969–1971 Seasons" by Yohanan Aharoni". Journal of Biblical Literature. 96 (2): 281–284. doi:10.2307/3265886. JSTOR 3265886. 
  26. ^ a b Freedman, 2000, p. 161.
  27. ^ "Tel Beersheva National Park". Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2007-09-27. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-26. 
  28. ^ Murphy-O'Connor, 1998, p. 438.
  29. ^ Hyam Maccoby (September 15, 1995). "Obituary: Benjamin Mazar". The Independent. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-26.  [pranala nonaktif]
  30. ^ Levine, 1998, p. 7.
  31. ^ James D. Tabor (1996–1998). "Masada Cave 2001–2002". James D. Tabor. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2004-09-10. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-26. 
  32. ^ "A founding father of Israeli archaeology". Biblical Archaeology Review. Biblical Archaeology Society. 30 (3). May–June 2004. 
  33. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama WHS
  34. ^ Hershel Shanks (18 July 2008). "Opinion:Biblical Destruction". Wall Street Journal. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-19. 
  35. ^ a b Michele Chabin (11 July 2006). "Archaeologists Campaign to Stop Desecration of Temple Mount". Jewish United Fund. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-19. 
  36. ^ a b Mark Ami-El (1 August 2002). "The Destruction of the Temple Mount Antiquities". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 3 March 2008. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-19. 
  37. ^ Kristin M. Romey (March–April 2000). "Jerusalem's Temple Mount Flap". Archaeology: A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America. 53 (2). Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 17 March 2008. Diakses tanggal 2008-02-16. 
  38. ^ 'Waqf Temple Mount excavation damaged archaeological relics'
  39. ^ "Gold diggers ravage archeological site", Ynetnews

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