Ras manusia: Perbedaan antara revisi

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→‎Pranala luar: Perpustakaan
Baris 85: Baris 85:
* [[Jared Diamond]]
* [[Jared Diamond]]
* [[Stephen Oppenheimer]]
* [[Stephen Oppenheimer]]

==Perpustakaan==
<!-- GenomeRes14 p1679 from [[Human genetic variation]] [[Race and genetics]] -->
{{refbegin|2}}
<!-- Abizadeh,Arash 2001-->
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Abizadeh | first1 = Arash | year = 2001 | title = Ethnicity, Race, and a Possible Humanity | url = http://www.profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/abizadeh/Ethnicity.htm | journal = World Order | volume = 33 | issue = 1| pages = 23–34 |ref=harv}}
<!--Abraham, Carolyn 2009-->
* {{cite news |title=Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face |first=Carolyn |last=Abraham |url=http://m.theglobeandmail.com/life/molecular-eyewitness-dna-gets-a-human-face/article888804/?service=mobile&template=shareEmail&tabInside_tab=0&page=1 |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |publisher=Phillip Crawley |location= date=2009-04-07 |accessdate=2011-02-04 |ref=harv}}
<!-- AAA 1998-->
*{{Cite web|last=AAA| url=http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm |title=American Anthropological Association Statement on "Race" |publisher=Aaanet.org |date=1998-05-17 |accessdate=2009-04-18|ref=harv}}
<!-- AAPA 1996-->
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.1331010408 | last = AAPA |authorlink=American Association of Physical Anthropologists | year = 1996 | title = AAPA statement on biological aspects of race | url = http://www.virginia.edu/woodson/courses/aas102%20%28spring%2001%29/articles/AAPA_race.pdf | journal = Am J Phys Anthropol | volume = 101 | issue = | pages = 569–570 |ref=harv }}
<!--Amadon D 1949-->
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/1364805 | last1 = Amadon | first1 = D. | year = 1949 | title = The seventy-five percent rule for subspecies | journal = Condor | volume = 51 | issue = 6| pages = 250–258 |ref=harv | jstor=1364805}}
<!--Amundson 2005-->
* {{Cite book|last=Amundson|first=Ron|title=Quality of life and human difference: genetic testing, health care, and disability|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521832014|pages=101–24|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9PvWVZIzoTIC&pg=PA107|editor=David T. Wasserman, Robert Samuel Wachbroit, Jerome Edmund Bickenbach|chapter=Disability, Ideology, and Quality of Life: A Bias in Biomedical Ethics |ref=harv}}
<!--Angier Natalie 2000-->
* {{Cite news |last=Angier |first=Natalie|title=Do Races Differ? Not Really, DNA Shows|url=http://www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/082200sci-genetics-race.html|accessdate=9 August 2010 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=2000-08-22 |ref=harv}}
<!--Appiah 1992-->
* {{cite book |title=In My Father's House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture |last=Appiah |first=Kwame Anthony |year=1992 |isbn=9780195068528 |publisher= Oxford University Press |ref=harv}}
<!--Armelagos Smay 2000-->
*{{Cite journal|doi=10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19|
first2=Diana|last2= Smay|first= George|last= Armelagos|
title=Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race in forensic anthropolopy|journal=Transforming Anthropology|year= 2000|volume =9|pages=19–29|url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf|
postscript=<!--None--> |ref=harv}}
<!--Baker John R. 1974-->
* {{Cite book |last=Baker |first=John R |title=Race |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= London & NY |year= 1974 |ref=harv}}
<!--Bamshad Olson 2003-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Bamshad |first1=Michael |last2=Olson |first2=Steve E |url=http://schools.tdsb.on.ca/rhking/departments/science/bio/evol_pop_dyn/does_race_exist.pdf |title=Does Race Exist? |journal=Scientific American Magazine |date=2003-11-10 |ref=harv}}
<!--Bamshad et all 2004-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Bamshad |first1=M |last2=Wooding |first2=S |last3=Salisbury |first3=BA |last4=Stephens |first4= |title=Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=5 |issue=8 |pages=598–609 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15266342 |doi=10.1038/nrg1401 |url= |ref=harv}}
<!--Bamshad 2005 ??? -->
<!--Banton Michael 1977-->
* {{cite book | last=Banton |first=Michael | year=1977 | title=The idea of race | publisher= Westview Press |location= Boulder | format = paperback | isbn = 0891587195 |ref=harv}}
<!--Baum 2006-->
* {{cite book |last=Baum |first=Bruce |title=The rise and fall of the Caucasian race: a political history of racial identity |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York |year=2006 |page=218 |isbn=0-8147-9892-6 |ref=harv}}
<!--Bioni et al 1990-->
* {{Cite journal|last1=Biondi |first1=G |last2=Raspe |first2=P |last3=Perrotti |first3=E |last4=Lasker |first4=GW |last5=Mascie-Taylor |first=5CG |title=Relationships estimated by isonymy among the Italo-Greco villages of southern Italy |journal=Human Biology |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=649–63 |year=1990 |month=October |pmid=2227910 |ref=harv}}
<!--Blank Dabady Citro 2004-->
* {{cite book |last=Blank |first=Rebecca M. |last2=Dabady |first2=Marilyn |last3=Citro |first3=Constance Forbes |series=National Research Council (U.S.). Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination |publisher=National Adademies Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780309091268 |pages=317 |title=Measuring racial discrimination |chapter=Chapter 2 |ref=harv }}
<!--Blindon 2005-->
* {{cite web |last=Bindon |first=Jim |publisher=University of Alabama |url=http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant275/presentations/POST_WWII.PDF#search=%22stanley%20marion%20garn%22 |title=Post World War II |date=August 28, 2006, 2005 |ref=harv}}
<!--Bloche 2004-->
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1056/NEJMp048271 | last1 = Bloche | first1 = Gregg M. | year = 2004 | title = Race-Based Therapeutics | url = http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/351/20/2035 | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 351 | issue = 20| pages = 2035–2037 | pmid = 15533852 |ref=harv}}
<!--Boas Franz 1912-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1525/aa.1912.14.3.02a00080 | last1 = Boas | first1 = Franz| year = 1912 | title = Change in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants | url = | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 14 | issue = | pages = 530–562 |ref=harv}}
<!--Boyd William 1950-->
* {{cite book |last=Boyd |first=William C. |title=Genetics and the races of man: an introduction to modern physical anthropology |year=1950 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |ref=harv |page=207 |location=Boston }}
<!--Brace CLoring 1964-->
*{{cite book |last=Brace |first=CL |year=1964 |chapter=A Non-racial Approach Toward the Understanding of Human Diversity |title=The Concept of Race |editor=Ashley Montagu |ref=harv}}
<!--Brace CLoring 2000-->
*{{cite web| last=Brace |first=CL |year=2000 |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/brace.html |title=Does race exist? An antagonist's perspective |publisher=Pbs.org |accessdate=2010-10-11 |ref=harv}}
<!--Brace CLoring 2005-->
*{{cite book | last=Brace |first=CL |year=2005 |title=Race is a four letter word |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195173512 |pages=326 |ref=harv}}
<!--Condit et al 2003-->
*{{cite journal | last1 = Condit | first1 = C | last2 = Templeton | first2 = A| year = 2003 | last3 = Bates | first3 = BR | last4 = Bevan | first4 = JL | last5 = Harris | first5 = TM | title = Attitudinal barriers to delivery of race-targeted pharmacogenomics among informed lay persons | url = | journal = Genetics in Medicine | volume = 5| issue = 5| pages = 385–392 |pmid = 14501834 | doi = 10.1097/01.GIM.0000087990.30961.72 |ref=harv}}
<!--Conley 2007-->
* {{cite book |last=Conley |first=D |year=2007 |chapter=Being black, living in the red" |editor=PS Rothenberg |title=Race, Class, and Gender in the United States |edition=7th |pages=350–358 |location=New York |publisher=Worth Publishers |ref=harv}}
<!--Cravens Hamilton 2010-->
* {{cite journal |last=Cravens |first=Hamilton |year=2010 |title=What's New in Science and Race since the 1930s?: Anthropologists and Racial Essentialism |journal=The Historian |volume=72 |issue= 2 |page=299 |ref=harv}}
<!--Crenshaw 1988-->
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/1341398 | last1 = Crenshaw | first1 = KW | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1988 | title = Race, reform, and retrenchment: Transformation and legitimation in antidiscrimination law | journal = Harvard Law Review | volume = 101 | issue = 7| pages = 1331–1337 |ref=harv | jstor=1341398}}
<!--Cooper et al 2003-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1056/NEJMsb022863 | last1 = Cooper | first1 = RS | last2 = Kaufman | first2 = JS | last3 = Ward | first3 = R | year = 2003 | title = Race and genomics | url = | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 348 | issue = 12| pages = 1166–1170 | pmid = 12646675 |ref=harv}}
<!--Currell, Cogdell 2006-->
* {{Cite book | last1 = Currell | first1 = Susan | first2= Christina |last2=Cogdell | title = Popular Eugenics: National Efficiency and American Mass Culture in The 1930s | publisher = [[Ohio University Press]] | year = 2006 | location = Athens, OH | page = 203 | isbn = 082141691X |ref=harv}}
<!--Desmond Moore 2009-->
* {{citation|last1=Desmond|first1=Adrian|last2=Moore|first2=James|title=Darwin's sacred cause: how a hatred of slavery shaped Darwin's views on human evolution |publisher=Allen Lane, Penguin Books|year=2009|pages=484 |isbn=9781846140358 |ref=harv}}
<!--Dikötter 1992-->
* {{cite book |last=Dikötter |first= Frank |year=1992 |title=The discourse of race in modern China |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=9780804719940 |ref=harv }}
<!--Dobzhansky 1971-->
* {{cite book | last1=Dobzhansky |first1= T. |year=1970 | title=Genetics of the Evolutionary Process | location= New York, NY |publisher= Columbia University Press | isbn=0231028377 |ref=harv}}
<!--Dobzhansky 2005-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1110303 | last1 = Dobzhansky | first1 = T. | year = 2005 | title = Race and reification in science | url = | journal = Science | volume = 307 | issue = 5712| pages = 1050–1051 | pmid = 15718453 }}
<!--Edwards 2003-->
* {{cite journal |last=Edwards |first=AW |title=Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy |journal=Bioessays |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=798–801 |year=2003 |month=August |pmid=12879450 |doi=10.1002/bies.10315 |url= |ref=harv}}
<!--Ehrlich Paul; Holm Richard 1962 2003-->
* {{cite book |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul |last2=Holm |first2=Richard W. |chapter=A Biological View of Race |title=The Concept of Race |editor=Ashley Montagu |year=1964 |publisher=Collier Books |pages=153–179 |ref=harv}}
<!--El-Najjar, McWilliams 1978-->
* {{cite book | last1=El-Najjar |first1=M. Y. |last2= McWilliams |first2=K. R. |title=Forensic Anthropology: The Structure, Morphology and Variation of Human Bone and Dentition | page= 72 | publisher= Charles C. Thomas, Springfield |year= 1978 | isbn=0398036489 |ref=harv}}
<!--Gill 2000-->
*{{Cite web|last = Gill |first=G|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html |title=Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective |publisher=Pbs.org |year=2000 |accessdate=2009-04-18 |ref=harv}}
<!--Gitschier 2005-->
* {{cite journal |last=Gitschier |first=Jane |url=http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.0010014 |title=The Whole Side of It—An Interview with Neil Risch |year=2005 |publisher=PLoS Genet |volume=1(1):e14. |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010014 |ref=harv}}
<!--Gordon 1964-->
*{{Cite book|last=Gordon |first=Milton Myron |title=Assimilation in American life: the role of race, religion, and national origins |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1964 |pages= |isbn=978-0-19-500896-8 |ref=harv}}
<!--Graves Joseph L 2001-->
* {{cite book |last=Graves |first=Joseph L |title= The Emperor's New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millenium |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2001 |ref=harv}}
<!--Graves Joseph L. 2006-->
* {{cite web |url=http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/ |title=What We Know and What We Don't Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race |format= |work= |accessdate=2011-01-22 |last=Graves |first=Joseph L. |year=2006 |publisher=Social Science Research Council (SSRC) |ref=harv }}
<!--Haig et al 2006-->
* {{Cite journal|last1=Haig |first1= SM|last2=Beever|first2=EA|last3=Chambers|first3=SM|last4=Draheim |first4=HM |last5=et. al. |title=Taxonomic considerations in listing subspecies under the U.S. Endangered Species Act |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=1584–94 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17181793 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00530.x |ref=harv}}
<!--Harpending et al 2000-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1146/annurev.genom.1.1.361 | last1 = Harpending | first1 = H | last2 = Rogers | first2 = A | year = 2000 | title = Genetic perspectives on human origins and differentiation | url = | journal = Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet | volume = 1 | issue = | pages = 361–385 | pmid = 11701634 }}
<!--Harris Marvin 1980-->
* {{cite book |last=Harris |first=Marvin |title=Patterns of race in the Americas |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn |year=1980 |pages= |isbn=0-313-22359-9 |ref=harv }}
<!--Herrnstein & Murray 1996 (Second Edition-->
* {{cite book |title=The Bell Curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life |last1=Herrnstein |first1=Richard |last2=Murray |first2=Charles|publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1996 |ref=harv}}
<!--Human Genome Project 2003-->
* {{cite web | last=Human Genome Project |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml |title=Human Genome Project Information: Minorities, Race, and Genomics |year=2003 |publisher= U.S. Department of Energy(DOE)-Human Genome Program |ref=harv}}
<!--Hooton EA 1926-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.63.1621.75 | last1 = Hooton | first1 = E.A. | year = 1926 | title = Methods of racial analysis | url = | journal = Science | volume = 63 | issue = 1621| pages = 75–81 | pmid = 17774966 |ref=harv|bibcode = 1926Sci....63...75H }}
<!--Jorde et al 2004-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Jorde |first1=LB |last2=Wooding |first2=SP |title=Genetic variation, classification and 'race' |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=36 |issue=11 Suppl |pages=S28–33 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15508000 |doi=10.1038/ng1435 |url= |ref=harv}}
<!--Keita SOY Kittles RA 1997-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1525/aa.1997.99.3.534 | last1 = Keita | first1 = SOY | last2 = Kittles | first2 = RA | year = 1997 | title = The persistence of racial thinking and the myth of racial divergence | url = | journal = Am Anthropol | volume = 99 | issue = | pages = 534–544 |ref=harv }}
<!--Keita SOY et all 2004-->
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Keita | first1 = SOY | last2 = Kittles | first2 = RA | last3 = Royal | first3 = CDM | last4 = Bonney | first4 = GM | last5 =Furbert-Harris | first5= P | last6 = Dunston | first6 = GM | last7 =Rotimi | first7 = CM |year = 2004 | title = Conceptualizing human variation | url =http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1455.html | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 36 | issue =S17–S20 | pmid=15507998 |doi=10.1038/ng1455 |ref=harv}}
<!--King Desmond 2007-->
* {{cite book |last=King |first=Desmond |editor=Beem, Christopher; Mead, Lawrence M. |title=Welfare Reform and Political Theory |chapter=Making people work: Democratic consequences of workfare | publisher=Russell Sage Foundation Publications |location=New York |year=2007 |pages=65–81 |isbn=0-87154-588-8 |ref=harv}}
<!--Koertvelyessy, Nettleship 1996-->
* {{cite journal | last1 = Koertvelyessy | first1 = TA | last2 = Nettleship | first2 = MT |year = 1996 | title = Ethnicity and mating structure in Southwestern Hungary | url = | journal = Rivista di Antropologia (Roma) | volume = 74 | issue = | pages = 45–53 |ref=harv}}
<!--Koertvelyessy 1995-->
* {{cite journal | last1 = Koertvelyessy | first1 = T | year = 1995 | title = Ethnicity, isonymic relationships, and biological distance in Northeastern Hungary | url = | journal = Homo | volume = 46 | issue = 1| pages = 1–9 | issn=0018-442X |ref=harv}}
<!--Krulwich 2009-->
* {{cite web |last=Krulwich |first=Robert |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=100057939 |title=Your Family May Once Have Been A Different Color |publisher= Morning Edition, National Public Radio |date=2009-02-02 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Lee, Jayne Chong-Soon 1997-->
* {{cite book |editor=Gates, E. Nathaniel |title=Critical Race Theory: Essays on the Social Construction and Reproduction of Race |publisher=Garland Pub |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=9780815326038 |last=Lee |first=Jayne Chong-Soon |chapter=Review essay: Navigating the topology of race" |volume=4:''The Judicial Isolation of the "Racially" Oppressed'' |pages=393–426 |ref=harv }}
<!-- Lee, Sandra et al 2008-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Sandra SJ |last2=Mountain |first2=Joanna |last3=Koenig |first3=Barbara |last4=Altman |first4=Russ |title=The ethics of characterizing difference: guiding principles on using racial categories in human genetics |journal=Genome Biol. |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=404 |year=2008 |pmid=18638359 |pmc=2530857 |doi=10.1186/gb-2008-9-7-404 |url=http://genomebiology.com/2008/9/7/404 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Lewis, B 1990-->
* {{cite book | last1=Lewis | first1= B |year=1990 |title= Race and slavery in the Middle East |publisher= Oxford University Press | location = New York | isbn = 0195062833 |ref=harv }}
<!-- Lie John 2004-->
* {{cite book | last=Lie | first=John | title=Modern Peoplehood | location=Cambridge, Mass. | publisher= Harvard University Press | year= 2004 | isbn=0674013271 |ref=harv }}
<!-- Lieberman L 2001-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1086/318434 | last1 = Lieberman | first1 = L | year = 2001 | title = How "Caucasoids" got such big crania and why they shrank: from Morton to Rushton | url = | journal = Curr Anthropol | volume = 42 | issue = 1| pages = 69–95 | pmid = 14992214 }}
<!--Lieberman L; Kirk 1997-->
* {{cite book |last1=Lieberman |first1=Leonard |last2=Kirk |first2=Rodney |chapter=Teaching About Human Variation: An Anthropological Tradition for the Twenty-first Century|editor=Rice, Patricia; Kottak, Conrad Phillip; White, Jane G.; Richard H. Furlow |title=The Teaching of Anthropology: Problems, Issues, and Decisions |publisher=Mayfield Pub |location= |year=1997 |pages=381 |isbn=1-55934-711-2|ref=harv}}
<!-- Lieberman L; Jackson Fatimah LC 1995-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1525/aa.1995.97.2.02a00030 | last1 = Lieberman | first1 = Leonard| last2 = Jackson | first2 = Fatimah Linda C.| year = 1995 | title = Race and Three Models of Human Origins | url = | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 97 | issue = 2| pages = 231–242 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Lieberman Let al 1992-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/tea.3660290308 | last1 = Lieberman | first1 = Leonard | last2 = Hampton |first2=Raymond E. |last3=Littlefield | first3 = Alice |last4 = Hallead | first4 = Glen | year = 1992 | title = Race in Biology and Anthropology: A Study of College Texts and Professors | url = | journal = Journal of Research in Science Teaching | volume = 29 | issue = | pages = 301–321 |ref=harv|bibcode = 1992JRScT..29..301L }}
<!-- Lewontin Richard C 1972-->
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Lewontin | first1 =Richard C. | year = 1972 | title = The Apportionment of Human Diversity | url = | journal = Evolutionary Biology | volume = 6 | issue = | pages = 381–397 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Livingstone Frank B; Dobzhansky Theodosius 1962-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1086/200290 | last1 = Livingstone | first1 = Frank B. | last2 = Dobzhansky| year = 1962 | first2 = Theodosius | title = On the Non-Existence of Human Races | journal = Current Anthropology | volume = 3 | issue = | pages = 279–281 |ref=harv | jstor=2739576}}
<!-- Long JC ; Kittles RA 2003-->
*{{Cite journal| last1=Long |first1=JC|last2=Kittles|first2=RA |title=Human genetic diversity and the nonexistence of biological races |journal=Human Biology |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=449–71 |year=2003 |month=August |pmid=14655871 |doi=10.1353/hub.2003.0058 |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/human_biology/v075/75.4long.pdf |accessdate=2009-04-18 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Marks J 1995-->
* {{cite book | last1= Marks |first1=J |year=1995 |title= Human biodiversity: genes, race, and history |publisher= Aldine de Gruyter | location= New York | isbn = 0-585-39559-4 |ref=harv }}
<!-- Marks J 2002-->
* {{cite book|title=Race and Intelligence: Separating Science from Myth |editor=Jefferson M. Fish |chapter=Folk Heredity |last=Marks |first=Jonathan |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |location= Mahwah, NJ |year=2002 |page=98 |isbn=0805837574 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Marks J 2008-->
* {{cite book |last=Marks |first=Jonathan |year=2008 |chapter=Race: Past, present and future. Chapter 1 |title=Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age |editor=Barbara Koenig, Sandra Soo-Jin Lee & Sarah S. Richardson |publisher= Rutgers University Press |ref=harv }}
<!-- Mayr Ernst 1969-->
* {{cite book | last1=Mayr | first1= E.| year=1969 | title= Principles of Systematic Zoology | location= New York, NY |publisher= McGraw-Hill | isbn= 0070411433 |ref=harv }}
<!-- Mayr Ernst 2002-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Mayr | first1= Ernst |title=The Biology of Race and the Concept of Equality |year=2002 |month=Winter |journal=Daedalus |volume=31 |issue= 1 |pages=89–94 |publisher=MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences |ref=harv |jstor=20027740}}
<!-- McNeilly 1996-->
* {{cite journal |last1=McNeilly |first1=MD |last2=Anderson |first2=MB |last3=Armstead |first3=CA |last4=Clark| first4=R |last5=Corbett | first5=M |last6=Robinson |first6=EL |year=1996 |title=The perceived racism scale: A multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans |publisher=Ethnicity & Disease |volume=6 |issue=1–2 |pages=154–166 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Meltzer M 1993-->
* {{cite book | last1= Meltzer |first1=M |year=1993 | title= Slavery: a world history | edition=revised |publisher=DaCapo Press | location= Cambridge, MA | isbn= 0306805367 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Mevorach M 2007-->
*{{Cite journal|doi=10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.238 |title=Race, racism, and academic complicity |year=2007 |last1=Mevorach |first1=Katya Gibel |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=34 |pages=238 |ref=harv}}
<!--Miles 2000-->
*{{cite book |last=Miles |first=Robert |chapter=Apropos the idea of race ... again |title=Theories of race and racism |editor=Les Back, John Solomos |year=2000 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9780415156721 |pages=125–143 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Molnar Stephen 1992-->
* {{cite book |last=Molnar |first=Stephen |title=Human variation: races, types, and ethnic groups |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J |year=1992 |pages= |isbn=0-13-446162-2 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Montagu Ashley 1941-->
* {{cite journal | last1 = Montagu | first1 = Ashley | year = 1941 | title = The Concept of Race in The Human Species in the Light of Genetics | url = http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/8/243.full.pdf | format=PDF | journal = Journal of Heredity | volume = 32 | issue = 8 | pages = 243–248 |ref=harv }}
<!-- Montagu Ashley 1942-->
* {{cite book | last1 = Montagu | first1= Ashley | year=1942 | origyear=1942 |title = Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race | isbn= 0803946481 | year=1997 | publisher = AltaMira Press | format = paperback |ref=harv}}
<!-- Montagu Ashley 1962-->
* {{Cite journal |url = http://www.americanethnography.com/article.php?id=36 |title = The Concept of Race |last = Montagu |first = Ashley |authorlink = Ashley Montagu |publisher = ''American Ethnography Quasimonthly'' |accessdate = 26 January 2009 |year=1962 |ref=harv}}
<!-- Morgan 1975-->
* {{cite book | last=Morgan |first= Edmund S. | year=1975 |title= American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia |publisher= W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. |ref=harv}}
<!--Mörner M 1967-->
* {{cite book | last1=Mörner |first1= M | year=1967 |title= Race mixture in the history of Latin America |publisher= Little, Brown | location= Boston | isbn = 0316583693 |ref=harv}}
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{{refend}}


== Pranala luar ==
== Pranala luar ==

Revisi per 2 Januari 2012 11.55

Ras (dari bahasa Prancis race, yang sendirinya dari bahasa Latin radix, "akar") adalah suatu sistem klasifikasi yang digunakan untuk mengkategorikan manusia dalam populasi atau kelompok besar dan berbeda melalui ciri fenotipe, asal-usul geografis, tampang jasmani dan kesukuan yang terwarisi. Di awal abad ke-20 istilah ini sering digunakan dalam arti biologis untuk menunjuk populasi manusia yang beraneka ragam dari segi genetik dengan anggota yang memiliki fenotipe (tampang luar) yang sama.[1] Arti "ras" ini masih digunakan dalam antropologi forensik (dalam menganalisa sisa tulang), penelitian biomedis dan kedokteran berdasarkan asal-usul.[2]

Di samping itu, di Amerika Serikat misalnya, penegak hukum menggunakan istilah "ras" dalam menentukan profil tersangka dan penggambaran kembali tampang sisa yang belum diidentifikasi.

Selain itu, karena di banyak masyarakat, pengelompokan berdasarkan "ras" mengikuti pola pelapisan sosial, bagi ilmuwan sosial yang meneliti kesenjangan sosial, "ras" dapat menjadi variabel yang berarti. Sebagai faktor sosiologis, kategori "ras" dapat secara terbatas mencerminkan penjelasan yang subyektif, mengenai jati diri dan lembaga sosial.[3][4]

Oleh karena itu, paradigma "ras" yang digunakan dalam berbagai disiplin menekan dengan cara yang beraneka pada sifat biologis atau pada segi konstruk sosial.

Walau para biologis kadang-kadang menggunakan paham "ras" untuk membuat pembedaan antara kumpulan ciri-ciri yang rancu, ilmuwan lain mengajukan wawasan bahwa paham "ras" sering digunakan[5] secara naif[6] atau terlalu sederhana. "Ras" tidak memiliki arti taksonomis untuk manusia : semua manusia adalah anggota dari subspesies hominid yang sama yaitu Homo sapiens sapiens.[7][8] Paham sosial dan pengelompokan ras berubah dengan waktu, termasuk taksonomi awam [9] yang menentukan tipe orang yang bersifat esensialisme berdasarkan ciri-ciri yang terlihat. Para ilmuwan menganggap esensialisme biologis sudah ketinggalan jaman,[10] dan pada umumnya tidak mendukung penjelasan berdasarkan ras untuk pembedaan kelompok, baik dari segi ciri-ciri jasamni maupun kelakuan.[6][11]

Saat orang menentukan dan menggunakan satu paham tertentu untuk "ras", mereka menciptakan suatu kenyataan sosial di mana diterapkan suatu kategorisasi sosial tertentu.[12] Oleh sebab itu "ras" dipandang sebagai konstruk sosial.[13] Konstruk tersebut berkembang dalam berbagai konteks hukum, ekonomi dan sosio-politik, dan boleh jadi lebih merupakan akibat daripada sebab dari kenyataan sosial.[14] Walau banyak ilmuwan berpandangan bahwa "ras" adalah suatu konstruk sosial, kebanyakan pakar setuju bahwa "ras" memiliki dampak material yang nyata dalam diskriminasi perhunian, proses hukum, praktek politik, pendidikan dll. Teori Omi dan Winant mengenai pembentukan ras mengatakan bahwa "ras adalah suatu konsep yang mengartika dan melambangkan pertentangan dan kepentingan sosial melalui pengacuan pada tipe jasmani manusia yang berbeda.”[15] Arti dan maksud dari istilah "ras" dihasilkan dan digunakan oleh lembaga sosial melalui pandangan bersifat kebudayaan. Sejak Omi dan Winant, para akademisi telah menyusun dan meninjau kembali maksud "ras" sebagai konstruksi sosial dengan meneliti cara gambaran, paham dan asumsio mengenai "ras" dirumuskan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Angela Davis,[16] Ruth Gilmore,[17] dan Imani Perry[18] telah menelusuri hubungan antara paham "ras" dari segi sejarah dan sosial production dalam bahasa hukum dan pidana, dan dampaknya atas kebijakan terhadap orang Hitam di Amerika, dan jumlah mereka dalam penjara yang sudah tidak proporsional lagi.

Faktor sosio dan ekonomi, in combination with early but enduring views of race, berakibatkan penderitaan yang sangat besar di dalam kelompok yang terlantar.[19] Diskriminasi rasial sering bertepatan dengan pola pikir yang rasis , di mana para individu dan ideologi satu kelompok melihat anggota dari kelompok lain sebagai suatu "ras" tertentu yang lebih rendah secara moral.[20] Alhasil, kelompok yang tidak banyak berkuasa sering terasing atau tertindas, sedangkan individu dan lembaga yang dominan dituduh bersikap rasis.[21] Rasism berakibatkan banyak contoh tragedi, termasuk perbudakan dan genosid.[22] Scholars continue to debate the degrees to which racial categories are biologically warranted and socially constructed, as well as the extent to which the realities of race must be acknowledged in order for society to comprehend and address racism adequately.[23]

Paham modern pertama tentang "ras"

Tiga "ras" besar menurut buku Meyers Konversationslexikon dari Jerman tahun 1885-90. Subtipe "ras Mongoloid" ditandai dengan warna kuning dan jingga, "ras Kaukasoid" dalam warna keabu-abuan dan "ras Negroid" dalam warna coklat. Orang Dravida dan Singhala diwarnai hijau zaitun dan klasifikasi mereka dinyatakan sebagai kurang menentu. "Ras Mongoloid" adalah yang terluas penyebarannya, termasuk kedua Amerika, Asia Utara, Asia Timur, Asia Tenggara dan keseluruhan Arktik yang dihuni manusia.

Boleh jadi kelompok manusia dari dulu selalu menentukan diri sendiri sebagai berbeda dari kelompok lain. Namun, perbedaan tersebut belum tentu selalu dipandang sebagai sesuatu yang alami, tak terubahkan dan menyeluruh. Pandang seperti ini merupakan ciri-ciri khas paham "ras" yang digunakan di masa kini.[24]

Pada awalnya, kata "ras" dipakai untuk menunjuk suatu bangsa atau kelompok etnis. Marco Polo misalnya, dalam bukunya yang ditulis di abad ke-13, menguraikan "ras Persia".[25] Paham "ras" masa kini baru muncul di abad ke-17.[26]

Paham Eropa tentang "ras", sejalan dengan sejumlah paham yang sekarang dikaitkan dengan istilah tersebut, muncul pada saat revolusi ilmiah, di mana penelitian alam dimulai dan diutamakan, dan masa imperialisme dan kolonialisme Eropa yang menciptakan hubungan politik antara orang Eropa dan bangsa yang memiliki tradisi kebudayaan dan politik yang berbeda.[24][27] Dengan bertemunya orang Europa dengan bangsa dari berbagai bagian dunia, mereka membahas perbedaan jasmani, sosial dan kebudayaan di antara berbagai kelompok manusia. Munculnya perniagaan budak di Atlantik, yang secara berangsur menggantikan perniagaan budak yang lebih lama di seluruh dunia, makin mendorong untuk mengkategorikan kelompok manusia demi membenarkan ditundukkannya budak asal Afrika.[28] Drawing on Classical sources and upon their own internal interactions — for example, the hostility between the English and Irish was a powerful influence on early European thinking about the differences between people[29] — Europeans began to sort themselves and others into groups based on physical appearance, and to attribute to individuals belonging to these groups behaviors and capacities which were claimed to be deeply ingrained. A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities.[30] Similar ideas can be found in other cultures,[31] for example in China, where a concept often translated as "race" was associated with supposed common descent from the Yellow Emperor, and used to stress the unity of ethnic groups in China. Brutal conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and across the world.[32]

Klasifikasi pasca-klasik yang pertama manusia dalam "ras" diketahui adalah Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent ("Pembagian baru Bumi oleh spesies atau ras yang menghuninya") oleh François Bernier dari Prancis, yang diterbitkan tahun 1684.[33] Di abad ke-18, perbedaan antara kelompok manusia menjadi bahan penyelidikan ilmiah. Namun klasifikasi ilmiah mengenai variasi fenotipe sering disertai gagasan rasis mengenai kemampuan yang dianggap melekat pada berbagai kelompok, yang selalu memberi ciri-ciri yang paling bagus kepada orang Eropa atau orang Kulit putih, dan memperingkatkan "ras" lain dalam suatu kontinuum ciri-ciri yang secara berangsur menjadi kurang bagus. Klasifikasi Carolus Linnaeus, pencipta taksonomi zoologis, tahun 1755 membagi ras manusia Homo Sapiens dalam varietas "Europaeus", "Asiaticus", "Americanus" dan "Afer", yang masing-masing dikaitkan dengan watak yang berbeda : "sanguine", "melancolis", "choleric" dan "bilious".[34] Homo Sapiens Europeaus was described as active, acute, and adventurous whereas Homo Sapiens Afer was crafty, lazy and careless.[35]

Dalam bukunya berjudul The Natural Varieties of Mankind, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach yang diterbitkan tahun 1775 mengajukan lima kelompok besar : ras Kaukasoid, ras Mongoloid, ras Etiopia (yang kemudian dinamakan ras Negroid), ras Indian dan ras Melayu, namun dia tidak mengusulkan peringkatan apa pun antara para ras.[35] Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them".[36]

Dari abad ke-17 sampai 19, pelemburan kepercayaan orang awam mengenai perbedan antar kelompok, dengan penjelasan ilmiah mengenai perbedaan ini, menghasilkan apa yang oleh salah satu pakar disebut "ideologi tentang ras".[27] Menurut ideologi ini, ras adalah mendasar, alami, lestari dan terpisah. It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups.[32] Subsequent influential classifications by Georges Buffon, Petrus Camper and Christoph Meiners all classified "Negros" as inferior to Europeans.[35] Di Amerika Serikat, teori ras Thomas Jefferson berpengaruh. Dia melihat orang Afrika lebih rendah dari pada orang Kulit Putih, khususnya dari segi kecerdasan, dan memiliki nafsu seks yang kelebihan, tapi menganggap orang Indian setara dengan orang Kulit Putih.[37]

In the last two decades of the 18th century polygenism, the belief that different races had evolved separately in each continent and shared no common ancestor,[38] was advocated in England by historian Edward Long and anatomist Charles White, in Germany by ethnographers Christoph Meiners and Georg Forster, and in France by Julien Virey and prominently in the US by Samuel Morton, Josiah Nott and Louis Agassiz. Polygenism was popular and most widespread in the 19th century, culminating in the creation of the Anthropological Society of London during the American civil war, in opposition to the Abolitionist Ethnological Society.[39]

Perdebatan kini

Model evolusi manusia

Dalam suatu artikel di tahun 1995, Leonard Lieberman dan Fatimah Jackson menyatakan bahwa dukungan baru mana pun untuk suatu paham biologis tentang "ras" kemungkinan besar akan datang dari penelitian tentang evolusi manusia. Menurut mereka, pertanyaannya adalah mengenai akibat model evolusi manusia yang ada sekarang atas paham "ras" yang berdasarkan biologi.[40]

Saat ini semua manusia diklasifikasi sebagai anggota dari spesies Homo sapiens dan subspesies Homo sapiens sapiens. Namun manusia bukan spesies homininae pertama. Spesies pertama dari genus Homo adalah Homo habilis, yang diperkirakan muncul di Afrika Timur paling sedikit 2 juta tahun lalu. Anggota dari spesies ini menghuni berbagai bagian Afrika dalam waktu yang agak singkat. Homo erectus diteorikan berkembang lebih dari 1,8 juta tahun silam, dan sekitar 1,5 juta tahun silam bersebar di Eropa dan Asia. Hampir semua antropolog fisik setuju bahwa Homo sapiens berkembang dari Homo erectus Afrika ((sensu lato) atauHomo ergaster).[41][42] Kebanyakan antropolog berpikir bahwa Homo sapiens berkembang di Afrika Timur, dan kemudian bermigrasi keluar dari Afrika, menggantikan populasi H. erectus di Eropa dan Asia (model "asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika). Recent Human evolutionary genetics ( Jobling, Hurles and Tyler-Smith, 2004) support this “Out of Africa” model, however the recent sequencing of the Neanderthal and Denisovan genomes shows some admixture [43]. These results also show that 40.000 years ago there co-existed at least three major sub-species that may be considered as“races” (or not, see discussion below): Denisovans, Neanderthals and Cro-magnons. Today, there's only one human species with no sub-species.

Lieberman and Jackson argued that while advocates of both the Multiregional Model and the Out of Africa Model use the word race and make racial assumptions, none define the term.[40] They conclude that students of human evolution would be better off avoiding the word race, and instead describe genetic differences in terms of populations and clinal gradations.[40]

Ringkasan berbagai definisi biologis untuk "ras"

Biological definitions of race (Long & Kittles 2003)
Concept Reference Definition
Esentialis (Hooton 1926) "A great division of mankind, characterized as a group by the sharing of a certain combination of features, which have been derived from their common descent, and constitute a vague physical background, usually more or less obscured by individual variations, and realized best in a composite picture."
Taksonomis (Mayr 1969) "A subspecies is an aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species, inhabiting a geographic subdivision of the range of a species, and differing taxonomically from other populations of the species."
Populasi (Dobzhansky 1970) "Races are genetically distinct Mendelian populations. They are neither individuals nor particular genotypes, they consist of individuals who differ genetically among themselves."
Lineage (Templeton 1998) "A subspecies (race) is a distinct evolutionary lineage within a species. This definition requires that a subspecies be genetically differentiated due to barriers to genetic exchange that have persisted for long periods of time; that is, the subspecies must have historical continuity in addition to current genetic differentiation." ("Suatu subspesies (ras) adalah suatu garis evolusi yang berbeda dalam suatu spesies. Definisi ini menentukan bahwa suatu subspesies berbeda secara genetis karena kendala dalam pertukaran genetis yang sudah bertahan selama jangka waktu yang panjang. Artinya, subspesies tersebut harus memiliki kesinambungan sejarah di samping pembedaan genetis masa kini")
Population genetic correlation structure (Edwards 2003) "most of the information that distinguishes populations is hidden in the correlation structure of the data and not simply in the variation of the individual factors." ("Kebanyakan informasi yang membedakan populasi tersembunyi dalam struktur korelasi data, bukan hanya dalam variasi faktor individu")

"Ras" sebagai konstruksi sosial

Para antropolog dan ilmuwan evolusi lain sudah beralih dari istialh "ras" ke istilah "populasi" untuk membahas perbedaan genetika. Para sejarawan, antropolog kebudayaan dan ilmuwan sosial memahamkan kembali istilah "ras" sebagai kategori kebudayaan atau konstruksi sosial, suatu cara tertentu orang bicara tentang mereka sendiri dan tentang orang lain.

Banyak ilmuwan sosial sudah menggantikan istilah "ras" dengan kata "kelompok etnik" untuk menunjuk kelompok yang mengidentifikasi diri sendiri berdasarkan kepercayan mereka mengenai kebudayaan, asal-usul dan sejarah bersama. Selain masalah empiris dan konseptual yang dibawa paham "ras," setelah Perang Dunia Kedua, para ilmuwan di bidang evolusi dan sosial sangat menyadari betapa kepercayaan mengenai "ras" diperalat untuk membenarkan dissriminasi, apartheid, perbudakan dan genosid. Pertanyaan ini bertambah ramai di tahun 1960-an dengan gerakan hak sipil di Amerika Serikat dan munculnya banyak gerakan anti-kolonial di seluruh dunia. Para ilmuwan akhirnya mulai berpikir bahwa "ras" adalah suatu konstruksi sosial, suatu paham yang orang percaya adalah suatu kenyataan obyectif tapi sebetulnya mendapat kepercayaan karena fungsi sosialnya.[44]

Tahun 2000, Craig Venter dan Francis Collins dari National Institute of Health (lembaga kesehatan nasional) fi Amerika Serikat mengumumkan bersama suatu pemetaan dari genom manusia. Setelah meneliti data dari pemetaan genom tersebut, Venter melihat bahwa walau besaran variasi genetik dalam spesies manusia adalah sekitar 1–3% (yaitu lebih dari 1% yang diperkirakan semula), tipe variasi tersebut tidak mendukung paham "ras" dalam arti genetik. Venter mengatakan bahwa "Ras adalah suatu konsep sosial. Buka konsep ilmiah. Tidak ada garis yang jelas (yang akan muncul), seandainya kita membandingkan semua genom bersekuensi dari semua orang di atas planet ini." "Bila kita coba menerapkan ilmu untuk mencoba menyusun perbedaan sosial tersebut, runtuh semuanya."[45]

Stephan Palmié menegaskan bahwa "ras" "bukan suatu benda tapi suatu hubungan sosial";[46] atau, dengan kataKatya Gibel Mevorach, "suatu metonim," "suatu karangan manusia yang kriteria pembedaannya tidak universal dan tidak tetap, tapi selalu digunakan untuk mengatur perbedaan."[47] Dengan demikian, penggunaan kata "ras" sendiri perlu dianalisa. Lebih dari itu, Palmié dan Mevorach mengatakan bahwa biologi tidak akan dapat menjelaskan mengapa atau bagaimana orang menggunakan paham "ras". Yang akan menjelaskannyua adalah sejarah dan tatanan sosial.

Imani Perry, a professor in the Center for African American Studies at Princeton University, has made significant contributions to how we define race in America today. Perry’s work focuses on how race is experienced. Perry tells us that race, “is produced by social arrangements and political decision making.” [48] Perry explains race more in stating, “race is something that happens, rather than something that is. It is dynamic, but it holds no objective truth.”[49]

Catatan

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  49. ^ Imani Perry, More Beautiful and More Terrible: The Embrace and Transcendence of Racial Inequality in the United States (New York, NY: New York University Press, 2011), 24.

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