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Studi mengenai '''lingkungan dan orientasi seksual''' adalah penelitian yang mencari kemungkinan pengaruh lingkungan dalam pembentukan [[orientasi seksual]]. Beberapa peneliti membedakan antara pengaruh lingkungan dengan pengaruh hormonal,<ref name="pediatrics2004">{{cite journal|doi=10.1542/peds.113.6.1827 |author=Frankowski BL|author2=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence|title=Sexual orientation and adolescents |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]]|volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=1827–32 |date=June 2004|pmid=15173519|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/113/6/1827.long}}</ref> sementara yang lain memasukkan pengaruh biologis seperti [[Hormon prenatal dan orientasi seksual|hormon prenatal]] sebagai bagian dari pengaruh lingkungan.<ref name="Sweden">{{cite journal|first=Niklas|last=Långström |author2=Qazi Rahman |author3=Eva Carlström |author4=Paul Lichtenstein|title=Genetic and Environmental Effects on Same-sex Sexual Behaviour: A Population Study of Twins in Sweden|publisher=Archives of Sexual Behavior|date=7 June 2008
Studi mengenai '''lingkungan dan orientasi seksual''' adalah penelitian yang mencari kemungkinan pengaruh lingkungan dalam pembentukan [[orientasi seksual]]. Beberapa peneliti membedakan antara pengaruh lingkungan dengan pengaruh hormonal,<ref name="pediatrics2004">{{cite journal|doi=10.1542/peds.113.6.1827 |author=Frankowski BL|author2=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence|title=Sexual orientation and adolescents |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]]|volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=1827–32 |date=June 2004|pmid=15173519|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/113/6/1827.long}}</ref> sementara yang lain memasukkan pengaruh biologis seperti [[Hormon prenatal dan orientasi seksual|hormon prenatal]] sebagai bagian dari pengaruh lingkungan.<ref name="Sweden">{{cite journal|first=Niklas|last=Långström |author2=Qazi Rahman |author3=Eva Carlström |author4=Paul Lichtenstein|title=Genetic and Environmental Effects on Same-sex Sexual Behaviour: A Population Study of Twins in Sweden|publisher=Archives of Sexual Behavior|date=7 June 2008
|doi=10.1007/s10508-008-9386-1|pmid=18536986|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=39|issue=1|pages=75–80}}
|doi=10.1007/s10508-008-9386-1|pmid=18536986|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=39|issue=1|pages=75–80}}
</ref> Hormonal dipengarui melalui ketentuan [[Gen|genetik]]. Perkembangan penelitian mengenai hubungan ''genetik''-''kromosom'' atau [[genom]] dan orientasi seksual dalam skala yang lebih meyakinkan menghasilkan temuan [[Gen|genetik]] dan [[kromosom]] sangat tidak mungkin menentukan orientasi seksual (khususnya pendasar sebab non-heteroseksual).<ref name=":0">* {{cite journal|last1=Zietsch|first1=Brendan P.|last2=Neale|first2=Benjamin M.|last3=Perry|first3=John R. B.|last4=Sanders|first4=Alan R.|last5=Martin|first5=Eden R.|last6=Beecham|first6=Gary W.|last7=Harris|first7=Kathleen Mullan|last8=Auton|first8=Adam|last9=Långström|first9=Niklas|date=30 August 2019|title=Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior|journal=Science|language=en|volume=365|issue=6456|pages=eaat7693|doi=10.1126/science.aat7693|issn=0036-8075|pmc=7082777|pmid=31467194|last10=Lundström|first10=Sebastian|last11=Lichtenstein|first11=Paul|last12=Team16|first12=Paul|last13=Sathirapongsasuti|first13=J. Fah|last14=Guo|first14=Shengru|last15=Abdellaoui|first15=Abdel|last16=Busch|first16=Alexander S.|last17=Wedow|first17=Robbee|last18=Maier|first18=Robert|last19=Nivard|first19=Michel G.|last20=Verweij|first20=Karin J. H.|last21=Ganna|first21=Andrea}}
</ref>
* {{cite web|date=28 February 2018|title=Genetics of Sexual Behavior|url=https://geneticsexbehavior.info/what-we-found/|website=Genetics of Sexual Behavior|publisher=geneticsexbehavior.info|access-date=30 August 2019}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Lambert|first1=Jonathan|date=29 August 2019|title=No 'gay gene': Massive study homes in on genetic basis of human sexuality|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=573|issue=7772|pages=14–15|bibcode=2019Natur.573...14L|doi=10.1038/d41586-019-02585-6|pmid=31481774|doi-access=free}}</ref>


Ilmuwan tidak tahu pasti apa yang menyebabkan orientasi seksual, tetapi mereka berteori bahwa ini adalah hasil dari pengaruh kompleks antara [[genetik]], [[hormonal]], dan pengaruh lingkungan.<ref name="Frankowski">{{cite journal |doi=10.1542/peds.113.6.1827 |author=Frankowski BL|author2=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence|title=Sexual orientation and adolescents |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]]|volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=1827–32 |date=June 2004|pmid=15173519|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/113/6/1827.long}}</ref><ref name="Lamanna">{{cite book|author=Mary Ann Lamanna|author2=Agnes Riedmann|author3=Susan D Stewart|title=Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|isbn=1305176898|year=2014|page=82|accessdate=January 11, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fofaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82|quote=The reason some individuals develop a gay sexual identity has not been definitively established &nbsp;– nor do we yet understand the development of heterosexuality. The American Psychological Association (APA) takes the position that a variety of factors impact a person's sexuality. The most recent literature from the APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors...is shaped at an early age...[and evidence suggests] biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality (American Psychology Association 2010).}}</ref><ref name="Stuart">{{cite book|author=Gail Wiscarz Stuart|title=Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing|publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|isbn=032329412X|year=2014|page=502|accessdate=January 11, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivALBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA502|quote=No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.}}</ref> Tidak seperti [[identitas orientasi seksual]], mereka tidak melihat orientasi seksual sebagai sebuah pilihan.<ref name="Frankowski"/><ref name="Lamanna"/><ref name="Kersey-Matusiak">{{cite book|author=Gloria Kersey-Matusiak|title=Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care|publisher=[[Springer Publishing Company]]|isbn=0826193811|year=2012|page=169|accessdate=January 10, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8O_wGedAYoC&pg=PA169|quote=Most health and mental health organizations do not view sexual orientation as a 'choice.'}}</ref>
Dahulu ilmuwan tidak tahu pasti apa yang menyebabkan orientasi seksual, tetapi mereka berteori bahwa ini adalah hasil dari pengaruh kompleks antara [[genetik]], [[hormonal]], dan pengaruh lingkungan,<ref name="Frankowski">{{cite journal |doi=10.1542/peds.113.6.1827 |author=Frankowski BL|author2=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence|title=Sexual orientation and adolescents |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]]|volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=1827–32 |date=June 2004|pmid=15173519|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/113/6/1827.long}}</ref><ref name="Lamanna">{{cite book|author=Mary Ann Lamanna|author2=Agnes Riedmann|author3=Susan D Stewart|title=Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|isbn=1305176898|year=2014|page=82|accessdate=January 11, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fofaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82|quote=The reason some individuals develop a gay sexual identity has not been definitively established &nbsp;– nor do we yet understand the development of heterosexuality. The American Psychological Association (APA) takes the position that a variety of factors impact a person's sexuality. The most recent literature from the APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors...is shaped at an early age...[and evidence suggests] biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality (American Psychology Association 2010).}}</ref><ref name="Stuart">{{cite book|author=Gail Wiscarz Stuart|title=Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing|publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|isbn=032329412X|year=2014|page=502|accessdate=January 11, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivALBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA502|quote=No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.}}</ref> versi lain memasukan [[Psikologi|psikologis]] dibandingkan lingkungan,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Is Sexual Orientation Determined at Birth? - Born Gay - ProCon.org|url=https://borngay.procon.org/questions/is-sexual-orientation-determined-at-birth/|website=Born Gay|language=en-US|access-date=|quote=...in its stead, the report finds that human DNA cannot predict who is gay or heterosexual. Sexuality cannot be pinned down by biology, psychology or life experiences, this study and others show, because human sexual attraction is decided by all these factors.}}</ref> namun peninjauan ulang [[genetik]] dilakukan pada tahun 2019, memperbarui dan membantah pengaruh ''genetik-kromosom'' atau ''genom'', hereditas hingga faktor penurunan hormon pada genetik terkait.<ref name=":0" /> Diagnosis eksplisit [[Psikologi|psikologis]] dihilangkan dari umum karena keganasan [[egalitarianisme]] dan kesepakatan daripada bukti ilmiah mengenai [[patologi]] dan kajian dampak biologis mendatang lainnya,<ref name=":3">{{Citation|title=Politics, science, and the problem of psychiatric nomenclature: a case study of the American Psychiatric Association referendum on homosexuality|date=1987|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/scientific-controversies/politics-science-and-the-problem-of-psychiatric-nomenclature-a-case-study-of-the-american-psychiatric-association-referendum-on-homosexuality/A5473E47B6825ABCA1ABCF8614DEB944|journal=Scientific Controversies: Case Studies in the Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology|pages=381–400|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511628719.018|isbn=978-0-521-25565-3}}</ref> dan bukti ilmiah seadanya saat itu pada tahun 1970.


Hipotesis bahwa lingkungan sosial pascalahir berdampak pada orientasi seksual adalah lemah, terutama bagi laki-laki.<ref name="Bailey1">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M|title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science |journal=[[Psychological Science in the Public Interest]]|volume=17|issue=21|date=2016|doi=10.1177/1529100616637616|PMID=27113562|pages=45-101}}</ref> Meskipun tidak ada bukti kuat yang berpendapat bahwa pengasuhan orang tua atau pengalaman kanak-kanak awal berperan dalam orientasi seksual,<ref name="AmPsychiAssn-Sexual orientation">{{Cite web|title=Sexual Orientation|publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]]|accessdate=January 1, 2013|url=http://healthyminds.org/More-Info-For/GayLesbianBisexuals.aspx|archivedate=July 22, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722080052/http://www.healthyminds.org/More-Info-For/GayLesbianBisexuals.aspx}}</ref><ref name="rcp2007">{{cite web |url=http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe.aspx |title=Submission to the Church of England’s Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality |publisher=The Royal College of Psychiatrists|accessdate=13 June 2013}}</ref> beberapa studi telah menghubungkan pengasuhan orang tua dengan identitas [[non-heteroseksual]],<ref name="Sweden"/><ref name=Parenting2010>{{cite journal|last1=Schumm|first1=Walter R.|title=CHILDREN OF HOMOSEXUALS MORE APT TO BE HOMOSEXUALS? A REPLY TO MORRISON AND TO CAMERON BASED ON AN EXAMINATION OF MULTIPLE SOURCES OF DATA|journal=Journal of Biosocial Science|date=November 2010|volume=42|issue=06|doi=10.1017/S0021932010000325|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7907017&fileId=S0021932010000325|accessdate=6 September 2014|pmid=20642872|pages=721–42}}</ref> serta [[nonkonformitas gender masa kanak-kanak]] dan [[homoseksualitas]].<ref name="Bearman">{{cite journal|last=Bearman
Hipotesis bahwa lingkungan sosial pascalahir berdampak pada orientasi seksual adalah lemah, terutama bagi laki-laki.<ref name="Bailey1">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M|title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science |journal=[[Psychological Science in the Public Interest]]|volume=17|issue=21|date=2016|doi=10.1177/1529100616637616|PMID=27113562|pages=45-101}}</ref> Meskipun tidak ada bukti kuat yang berpendapat bahwa pengasuhan orang tua atau pengalaman kanak-kanak awal berperan dalam orientasi seksual,<ref name="AmPsychiAssn-Sexual orientation">{{Cite web|title=Sexual Orientation|publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]]|accessdate=January 1, 2013|url=http://healthyminds.org/More-Info-For/GayLesbianBisexuals.aspx|archivedate=July 22, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722080052/http://www.healthyminds.org/More-Info-For/GayLesbianBisexuals.aspx}}</ref><ref name="rcp2007">{{cite web |url=http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe.aspx |title=Submission to the Church of England’s Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality |publisher=The Royal College of Psychiatrists|accessdate=13 June 2013}}</ref> beberapa studi telah menghubungkan pengasuhan orang tua dengan identitas [[non-heteroseksual]],<ref name="Sweden"/><ref name=Parenting2010>{{cite journal|last1=Schumm|first1=Walter R.|title=CHILDREN OF HOMOSEXUALS MORE APT TO BE HOMOSEXUALS? A REPLY TO MORRISON AND TO CAMERON BASED ON AN EXAMINATION OF MULTIPLE SOURCES OF DATA|journal=Journal of Biosocial Science|date=November 2010|volume=42|issue=06|doi=10.1017/S0021932010000325|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7907017&fileId=S0021932010000325|accessdate=6 September 2014|pmid=20642872|pages=721–42}}</ref> serta non-[[konformitas]] [[nonkonformitas gender masa kanak-kanak|gender masa kanak-kanak]] dan [[homoseksualitas]].<ref name="Bearman">{{cite journal|last=Bearman
|first=Peter|author2=Brückner, Hannah|year=2002|title=Opposite-sex twins and adolescent same-sex attraction|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=107|url=http://www.soc.duke.edu/~jmoody77/205a/ecp/bearman_bruckner_ajs.pdf|format=PDF|pages=1179–1205|doi=10.1086/341906}}</ref><ref name=Bem2008>{{cite journal|last1=Bem|first1=Daryl|title=Is There a Causal Link Between Childhood Gender Nonconformity and Adult Homosexuality?|journal=Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health|date=11 Oct 2008|volume=12|issue=1-2|pages=61–79|doi=10.1300/J529v12n01_05|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J529v12n01_05|accessdate=10 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Rieger">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rieger G, Linsenmeier JA, Gygax L, Bailey JM |title=Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: evidence from home videos |journal=Dev Psychol |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=46–58 |date=Jan 2008 |pmid=18194004 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.46 }}</ref>
|first=Peter|author2=Brückner, Hannah|year=2002|title=Opposite-sex twins and adolescent same-sex attraction|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=107|url=http://www.soc.duke.edu/~jmoody77/205a/ecp/bearman_bruckner_ajs.pdf|format=PDF|pages=1179–1205|doi=10.1086/341906}}</ref><ref name=Bem2008>{{cite journal|last1=Bem|first1=Daryl|title=Is There a Causal Link Between Childhood Gender Nonconformity and Adult Homosexuality?|journal=Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health|date=11 Oct 2008|volume=12|issue=1-2|pages=61–79|doi=10.1300/J529v12n01_05|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J529v12n01_05|accessdate=10 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Rieger">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rieger G, Linsenmeier JA, Gygax L, Bailey JM |title=Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: evidence from home videos |journal=Dev Psychol |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=46–58 |date=Jan 2008 |pmid=18194004 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.46 }}</ref> Kondisi seperti ini dan lingkungan atau nurture kondisi tertentu, atau/dan apabila hingga terjadi trauma, sangat berhubung dengan dampak [[Psikologi|psikologis]], eksplisitnya gejala gangguan [[psikosis]], gangguan kontrol impuls, OCD (hingga cabang HOCD, SO-OCD, POCD, Obsesi murni menjadi [[delusi]] atau sebaliknya) atau gangguan kesehatan mental lain yang disebabkan khususnya faktor trauma, hingga kombinasi diantara gangguan atau penyakit tersebut. [[Psikosis|Psikotik]] identik dengan disorientasi. Pada kondisi tertentu, diantara gangguan atau penyakit tersebut juga memungkinkan dari [[hereditas]].


== Referensi ==
== Referensi ==

Revisi per 17 November 2022 11.42

Orientasi seksual
Berbagai orientasi seksual
Kategori non-biner
Penelitian
Pada hewan: Perilaku homoseksual pada hewan (Daftar)

Studi mengenai lingkungan dan orientasi seksual adalah penelitian yang mencari kemungkinan pengaruh lingkungan dalam pembentukan orientasi seksual. Beberapa peneliti membedakan antara pengaruh lingkungan dengan pengaruh hormonal,[1] sementara yang lain memasukkan pengaruh biologis seperti hormon prenatal sebagai bagian dari pengaruh lingkungan.[2] Hormonal dipengarui melalui ketentuan genetik. Perkembangan penelitian mengenai hubungan genetik-kromosom atau genom dan orientasi seksual dalam skala yang lebih meyakinkan menghasilkan temuan genetik dan kromosom sangat tidak mungkin menentukan orientasi seksual (khususnya pendasar sebab non-heteroseksual).[3]

Dahulu ilmuwan tidak tahu pasti apa yang menyebabkan orientasi seksual, tetapi mereka berteori bahwa ini adalah hasil dari pengaruh kompleks antara genetik, hormonal, dan pengaruh lingkungan,[4][5][6] versi lain memasukan psikologis dibandingkan lingkungan,[7] namun peninjauan ulang genetik dilakukan pada tahun 2019, memperbarui dan membantah pengaruh genetik-kromosom atau genom, hereditas hingga faktor penurunan hormon pada genetik terkait.[3] Diagnosis eksplisit psikologis dihilangkan dari umum karena keganasan egalitarianisme dan kesepakatan daripada bukti ilmiah mengenai patologi dan kajian dampak biologis mendatang lainnya,[8] dan bukti ilmiah seadanya saat itu pada tahun 1970.

Hipotesis bahwa lingkungan sosial pascalahir berdampak pada orientasi seksual adalah lemah, terutama bagi laki-laki.[9] Meskipun tidak ada bukti kuat yang berpendapat bahwa pengasuhan orang tua atau pengalaman kanak-kanak awal berperan dalam orientasi seksual,[10][11] beberapa studi telah menghubungkan pengasuhan orang tua dengan identitas non-heteroseksual,[2][12] serta non-konformitas gender masa kanak-kanak dan homoseksualitas.[13][14][15] Kondisi seperti ini dan lingkungan atau nurture kondisi tertentu, atau/dan apabila hingga terjadi trauma, sangat berhubung dengan dampak psikologis, eksplisitnya gejala gangguan psikosis, gangguan kontrol impuls, OCD (hingga cabang HOCD, SO-OCD, POCD, Obsesi murni menjadi delusi atau sebaliknya) atau gangguan kesehatan mental lain yang disebabkan khususnya faktor trauma, hingga kombinasi diantara gangguan atau penyakit tersebut. Psikotik identik dengan disorientasi. Pada kondisi tertentu, diantara gangguan atau penyakit tersebut juga memungkinkan dari hereditas.

Referensi

  1. ^ Frankowski BL; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence (June 2004). "Sexual orientation and adolescents". Pediatrics. 113 (6): 1827–32. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.1827. PMID 15173519. 
  2. ^ a b Långström, Niklas; Qazi Rahman; Eva Carlström; Paul Lichtenstein (7 June 2008). "Genetic and Environmental Effects on Same-sex Sexual Behaviour: A Population Study of Twins in Sweden". Archives of Sexual Behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 39 (1): 75–80. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9386-1. PMID 18536986. 
  3. ^ a b * Zietsch, Brendan P.; Neale, Benjamin M.; Perry, John R. B.; Sanders, Alan R.; Martin, Eden R.; Beecham, Gary W.; Harris, Kathleen Mullan; Auton, Adam; Långström, Niklas; Lundström, Sebastian; Lichtenstein, Paul; Team16, Paul; Sathirapongsasuti, J. Fah; Guo, Shengru; Abdellaoui, Abdel; Busch, Alexander S.; Wedow, Robbee; Maier, Robert; Nivard, Michel G.; Verweij, Karin J. H.; Ganna, Andrea (30 August 2019). "Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior". Science (dalam bahasa Inggris). 365 (6456): eaat7693. doi:10.1126/science.aat7693. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 7082777 alt=Dapat diakses gratis. PMID 31467194. 
  4. ^ Frankowski BL; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence (June 2004). "Sexual orientation and adolescents". Pediatrics. 113 (6): 1827–32. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.1827. PMID 15173519. 
  5. ^ Mary Ann Lamanna; Agnes Riedmann; Susan D Stewart (2014). Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society. Cengage Learning. hlm. 82. ISBN 1305176898. Diakses tanggal January 11, 2016. The reason some individuals develop a gay sexual identity has not been definitively established  – nor do we yet understand the development of heterosexuality. The American Psychological Association (APA) takes the position that a variety of factors impact a person's sexuality. The most recent literature from the APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors...is shaped at an early age...[and evidence suggests] biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality (American Psychology Association 2010). 
  6. ^ Gail Wiscarz Stuart (2014). Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. hlm. 502. ISBN 032329412X. Diakses tanggal January 11, 2016. No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation. 
  7. ^ "Is Sexual Orientation Determined at Birth? - Born Gay - ProCon.org". Born Gay (dalam bahasa Inggris). ...in its stead, the report finds that human DNA cannot predict who is gay or heterosexual. Sexuality cannot be pinned down by biology, psychology or life experiences, this study and others show, because human sexual attraction is decided by all these factors. 
  8. ^ "Politics, science, and the problem of psychiatric nomenclature: a case study of the American Psychiatric Association referendum on homosexuality", Scientific Controversies: Case Studies in the Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 381–400, 1987, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511628719.018, ISBN 978-0-521-25565-3 
  9. ^ Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (21): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616. PMID 27113562. 
  10. ^ "Sexual Orientation". American Psychiatric Association. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal July 22, 2011. Diakses tanggal January 1, 2013. 
  11. ^ "Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality". The Royal College of Psychiatrists. Diakses tanggal 13 June 2013. 
  12. ^ Schumm, Walter R. (November 2010). "CHILDREN OF HOMOSEXUALS MORE APT TO BE HOMOSEXUALS? A REPLY TO MORRISON AND TO CAMERON BASED ON AN EXAMINATION OF MULTIPLE SOURCES OF DATA". Journal of Biosocial Science. 42 (06): 721–42. doi:10.1017/S0021932010000325. PMID 20642872. Diakses tanggal 6 September 2014. 
  13. ^ Bearman, Peter; Brückner, Hannah (2002). "Opposite-sex twins and adolescent same-sex attraction" (PDF). American Journal of Sociology. 107: 1179–1205. doi:10.1086/341906. 
  14. ^ Bem, Daryl (11 Oct 2008). "Is There a Causal Link Between Childhood Gender Nonconformity and Adult Homosexuality?". Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health. 12 (1-2): 61–79. doi:10.1300/J529v12n01_05. Diakses tanggal 10 September 2014. 
  15. ^ Rieger G, Linsenmeier JA, Gygax L, Bailey JM (Jan 2008). "Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: evidence from home videos". Dev Psychol. 44 (1): 46–58. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.46. PMID 18194004. 
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