Pemotongan kelamin perempuan: Perbedaan antara revisi

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|caption1 = Sebuah [[plakat]] di dekat [[Kapchorwa]], [[Uganda]], 2004.
|caption1 = Sebuah [[plakat]] di dekat [[Kapchorwa]], [[Uganda]], 2004.
|label2 = Definisi
|label2 = Definisi
|data2 = Didefinisikan pada tahun 1977 oleh [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[UNICEF]], dan [[UNFPA]] sebagai "penghilangan sebagian atau seluruh bagian luar kelamin wanita atau perlukaan lainnya pada organ kelamin wanita untuk alasan nonmedis."<ref name=WHO2014>[http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/overview/en/ "Classification of female genital mutilation"], Jenewa: World Health Organization, 2014 (hereafter WHO 2014).</ref>
|data2 = Didefinisikan pada tahun 1977 oleh [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[UNICEF]], dan [[UNFPA]] sebagai "penghilangan sebagian atau seluruh bagian luar kelamin wanita atau perlukaan lainnya pada organ kelamin wanita untuk alasan nonmedis."<ref name=WHO2014>[[#WHO2014|WHO 2014]].</ref>
|label3 = Area
|label3 = Area
|data3 = [[Afrika]], [[Asia Tenggara]], [[Timur Tengah]], dan pada berbagai komunitas di area ini.<ref>[[#UNICEF2013|UNICEF 2013]], 5.</ref>
|data3 = Terutama terjadi di 27 negara di [[Afrika]], juga di [[Indonesia]], [[Kurdistan Irak]], dan [[Yaman]]<ref name=UNICEF2013>[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf ''Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change''], New York: United Nations Children's Fund, July 2013.</ref>{{rp|5}}<ref name=UNICEF2016>[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern"], New York: United Nations Children's Fund, February 2016.</ref>
|label4 = Jumlah
|label4 = Jumlah
|data4 = Lebih dari 200 juta wanita dan gadis di 30 negara, pada tahun 2016.<ref name=UNICEF2016/>
|data4 = Lebih dari 200 juta perempuan di 27 negara Afrika, [[Indonesia]], [[Kurdistan Irak]], dan [[Yaman]] (tahun 2016).<ref name=UNICEF2016>[[#UNICEF2016|UNICEF 2016]].</ref>
|label5 = Usia
|label5 = Usia
|data5 = Beberapa hari setelah kelahiran sampai pubertas.<ref name=UNICEF2013/>{{rp|50}}
|data5 = Beberapa hari setelah kelahiran sampai pubertas.<ref name="UNICEF2013p50"/>
|label6 = Prevalensi
|label6 = Prevalensi
|data6 =
|data6 = {{collapsed infobox section begin|Usia 15–49}}
{{collapsed infobox section begin|Usia 15–49}}
|data7 = Sumber: UNICEF, Februari 2016<ref name=UNICEF2016/>
|data7 = Sumber: UNICEF, Februari 2016<ref name=UNICEF2016/>
{{hlist|[[Somalia]] (98%)| [[Guinea]] (97%)| [[Djibouti]] (93%)| [[Sierra Leone]] (90%)| [[Mali]] (89%)| [[Mesir]] (87%)| [[Sudan]] (87%)| [[Eritrea]] (83%)| [[Burkina Faso]] (76%)|[[Gambia]] (75%)| [[Etiopia]] (74%)| [[Mauritania]] (69%)| [[Liberia]] (50%)| [[Guinea-Bissau]] (45%)}}<br />
{{hlist|[[Somalia]] (98%)| [[Guinea]] (97%)| [[Djibouti]] (93%)| [[Sierra Leone]] (90%)| [[Mali]] (89%)| [[Mesir]] (87%)| [[Sudan]] (87%)| [[Eritrea]] (83%)| [[Burkina Faso]] (76%)|[[Gambia]] (75%)| [[Etiopia]] (74%)| [[Mauritania]] (69%)| [[Liberia]] (50%)| [[Guinea-Bissau]] (45%)|[[Chad]] (44%)| [[Pantai Gading]] (38%)| [[Nigeria]] (25%)| [[Senegal]] (25%)| [[Republik Afrika Tengah]] (24%)| [[Kenya]] (21%)|[[Yaman]] (19%)| [[Tanzania]] (15%)| [[Benin]] (9%)|
{{hlist|[[Chad]] (44%)| [[Pantai Gading]] (38%)| [[Nigeria]] (25%)| [[Senegal]] (25%)| [[Republik Afrika Tengah]] (24%)| [[Kenya]] (21%)|[[Yaman]] (19%)| [[Tanzania]] (15%)| [[Benin]] (9%)|
[[Iraq]] (8%)| [[Togo]] (5%)| [[Ghana]] (4%)| [[Niger]] (2%)| [[Uganda]] (1%) | [[Kamerun]] (1%)}}
[[Irak]] (8%)| [[Togo]] (5%)| [[Ghana]] (4%)| [[Niger]] (2%)| [[Uganda]] (1%) | [[Kamerun]] (1%)}}
{{collapsed infobox section end}}
{{collapsed infobox section end}}
{{collapsed infobox section begin|Usia 0–14}}
{{collapsed infobox section begin|Usia 0–14}}
Baris 25: Baris 23:
}}
}}


'''Khitan pada wanita''' ({{lang-en|female genital mutilation}} disingkat FGM), juga dikenal sebagai pemotongan genital wanita dan sunat wanita,{{efn|[[Martha Nussbaum]] (''Sex and Social Justice'', 1999): "Although discussions sometimes use the terms 'female circumcision' and 'clitoridectomy', 'female genital mutilation' (FGM) is the standard generic term for all these procedures in the medical literature&nbsp;... The term 'female circumcision' has been rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests the fallacious analogy to male circumcision&nbsp;..."{{sfn|Nussbaum|1999|loc=119}}}} adalah pemotongan atau penghilangan sebagian atau semua [[vulva|organ kelamin wanita eksternal]]. Praktik ini ditemukan di [[Afrika]], [[Asia]], dan [[Timur Tengah]], serta pada berbagai komunitas di negara-negara yang biasa melakukan FGM. UNICEF memperkirakan pada tahun 2016 bahwa 200 juta wanita di 30 negara (27 negara Afrika, Indonesia, Kurdistan Irak, dan Yaman) telah menjalani prosedur ini.<ref name=UNICEF2016/>
'''Khitan pada wanita''' ({{lang-en|female genital mutilation}} disingkat FGM),{{efn|[[Martha Nussbaum]] (''Sex and Social Justice'', 1999): "Although discussions sometimes use the terms 'female circumcision' and 'clitoridectomy', 'female genital mutilation' (FGM) is the standard generic term for all these procedures in the medical literature&nbsp;... The term 'female circumcision' has been rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests the fallacious analogy to male circumcision&nbsp;..."{{sfn|Nussbaum|1999|loc=119}}}} juga dikenal sebagai pemotongan genital wanita dan sunat wanita, adalah pemotongan atau penghilangan sebagian atau seluruh [[vulva|bagian luar kelamin wanita]]. Praktik ini ditemukan di [[Afrika]], [[Asia]], dan [[Timur Tengah]], serta pada berbagai komunitas di negara-negara yang biasa melakukan FGM. [[UNICEF]] memperkirakan pada tahun 2016 bahwa 200 juta wanita di 30 negara (27 negara Afrika, Indonesia, Kurdistan Irak, dan Yaman) telah menjalani prosedur ini.<ref name=UNICEF2016/>


FGM biasanya dilakukan oleh penyunat tradisional menggunakan pisau dan dilakukan mulai dari beberapa hari setelah kelahiran hingga masa pubertas dan seterusnya. Pada separuh negara dengan angka-angka nasional yang diketahui, sebagian besar pemotongan dilakukan ketika anak perempuan berusia di bawah lima tahun.<ref>Untuk pemotong dan pisaunya: [[#UNICEF2013|UNICEF 2013]], 2, 44–46; untuk usia: 50.</ref> Cara pemotongan berbeda-beda menurut negara atau kelompok etnis, seperti penghilangan tudung klitoris dan kelenjar klitoris; penghilangan labia bagian dalam; dan penghilangan labia bagian dalam dan luar, serta penutupan vulva. Pada metode terakhir ini, yang dikenal sebagai infibulasi, sebuah lubang kecil disisakan untuk aliran urin dan cairan menstruasi; vagina dibuka untuk hubungan intim dan dibuka lebih lanjut untuk melahirkan.{{sfn|Abdulcadir|Margairaz|Boulvain|Irion|2011}}
FGM biasanya dilakukan oleh penyunat tradisional menggunakan pisau dan dilakukan mulai dari beberapa hari setelah kelahiran hingga masa pubertas dan seterusnya. Pada separuh negara dengan angka-angka nasional yang diketahui, sebagian besar pemotongan dilakukan ketika anak perempuan berusia di bawah lima tahun.<ref>Untuk pemotong dan pisaunya: [[#UNICEF2013|UNICEF 2013]], 2, 44–46; untuk usia: 50.</ref> Cara pemotongan berbeda-beda menurut negara atau kelompok etnis, seperti penghilangan [[tudung klitoris]] dan kelenjar [[klitoris]]; penghilangan [[labia minora|labia bagian dalam]]; dan penghilangan labia bagian dalam dan [[labia majora|luar]], serta penutupan vulva. Pada metode terakhir ini, yang dikenal sebagai infibulasi, sebuah lubang kecil disisakan untuk aliran urin dan cairan [[menstruasi]]; [[vagina]] dibuka untuk hubungan intim dan dibuka lebih lanjut untuk melahirkan.{{sfn|Abdulcadir|Margairaz|Boulvain|Irion|2011}}


Praktik ini berakar pada ketidaksetaraan gender, upaya untuk mengendalikan seksualitas perempuan, dan gagasan tentang kemurnian, kerendahan hati, dan keindahan. FGM biasanya diprakarsai dan dilakukan oleh wanita, yang melihatnya sebagai sumber kehormatan dan ketakutan bahwa kegagalan untuk melakukan FGM pada anak perempuan dan cucu perempuan mereka akan mengantarkan gadis-gadis itu pada pengucilan sosial.<ref>[[#UNICEF2013|UNICEF 2013]], 15; {{harvnb|Toubia|Sharief|2003}}.</ref> Efek kesehatan yang merugikan tergantung pada metode yang diambil, seperti infeksi berulang, kesulitan buang air kecil dan pembuangan cairan menstruasi, nyeri kronis, perkembangan kista, ketidakmampuan untuk hamil, komplikasi saat melahirkan, dan perdarahan fatal.{{sfn|Abdulcadir|Margairaz|Boulvain|Irion|2011}} Tidak ada manfaat kesehatan FGM yang diketahui.<ref name=WHO2018health>[[#WHO2018|WHO 2018]].</ref>
Praktik ini berakar pada [[ketidaksetaraan gender]], upaya untuk mengendalikan [[seksualitas manusia perempuan|seksualitas perempuan]], dan gagasan tentang kemurnian, kerendahan hati, dan keindahan. FGM biasanya diprakarsai dan dilakukan oleh wanita, yang melihatnya sebagai sumber kehormatan dan ketakutan bahwa kegagalan untuk melakukan FGM pada anak perempuan dan cucu perempuan mereka akan mengantarkan gadis-gadis itu pada [[eksklusi sosial|pengucilan sosial]].<ref>[[#UNICEF2013|UNICEF 2013]], 15; {{harvnb|Toubia|Sharief|2003}}.</ref> Efek kesehatan yang merugikan tergantung pada metode yang diambil, seperti infeksi berulang, kesulitan buang air kecil dan pembuangan cairan menstruasi, [[nyeri kronis]], perkembangan [[kista]], ketidakmampuan untuk hamil, komplikasi saat melahirkan, dan perdarahan fatal.{{sfn|Abdulcadir|Margairaz|Boulvain|Irion|2011}} Tidak ada manfaat kesehatan FGM yang diketahui.<ref name=WHO2018health>[[#WHO2018|WHO 2018]].</ref>


Telah ada upaya internasional sejak tahun 1970-an untuk membujuk para praktisi untuk meninggalkan FGM. Praktik ini telah dilarang atau dibatasi di sebagian besar negara yang menerapkan FGM, meskipun peraturan yang ada tidak ditegakkan dengan baik. Sejak 2010, Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB) telah menyerukan kepada para penyedia layanan kesehatan untuk berhenti melakukan semua bentuk FGM, termasuk reinfibulasi setelah melahirkan dan "penandaan" tudung klitoris secara simbolis.<ref name=UN2010Askew>[[#UN2010|UN 2010]]; {{harvnb|Askew|Chaiban|Kalasa|Sen|2016}}.</ref> Perlawanan terhadap FGM juga dikritik, terutama dari kalangan antropolog, yang mengajukan pertanyaan sulit tentang relativisme budaya dan universalitas hak asasi manusia.<ref>{{harvnb|Shell-Duncan|2008|loc=225}}; {{harvnb|Silverman|2004|loc=420, 427}}.</ref>
Telah ada upaya internasional sejak tahun 1970-an untuk membujuk para praktisi untuk meninggalkan FGM. Praktik ini telah dilarang atau dibatasi di sebagian besar negara yang menerapkan FGM, meskipun peraturan yang ada tidak ditegakkan dengan baik. Sejak 2010, [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] (PBB) telah menyerukan kepada para penyedia layanan kesehatan untuk berhenti melakukan semua bentuk FGM, termasuk reinfibulasi setelah melahirkan dan "penandaan" tudung klitoris secara simbolis.<ref name=UN2010Askew>[[#UN2010|UN 2010]]; {{harvnb|Askew|Chaiban|Kalasa|Sen|2016}}.</ref> Perlawanan terhadap FGM juga dikritik, terutama dari kalangan [[antropolog]], yang mengajukan pertanyaan sulit tentang [[relativisme budaya]] dan universalitas [[hak asasi manusia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Shell-Duncan|2008|loc=225}}; {{harvnb|Silverman|2004|loc=420, 427}}.</ref>


== Menurut WHO ==
== Terminologi ==
{{sect-stub}}

== Metode ==
{{sect-stub}}

== Klasifikasi ==
Menurut WHO, khitan pada wanita terbagi dalam 4 tipe:<ref name=WHO>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/overview/en/ |title=Classification of female genital mutilation |accessdate=13 February 2016}}</ref>
Menurut WHO, khitan pada wanita terbagi dalam 4 tipe:<ref name=WHO>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/overview/en/ |title=Classification of female genital mutilation |accessdate=13 February 2016}}</ref>


Baris 42: Baris 46:


== Manfaat khitan perempuan ==
== Manfaat khitan perempuan ==

WHO mengatakan bahwa "[khitan pada wanita] tidak memiliki manfaat kesehatan sama sekali terhadap perempuan"<ref>[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ Female Genital Mutilation]</ref>.
WHO mengatakan bahwa "[khitan pada wanita] tidak memiliki manfaat kesehatan sama sekali terhadap perempuan"<ref>[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ Female Genital Mutilation]</ref>.


Baris 76: Baris 79:
== Sumber ==
== Sumber ==
=== Catatan ===
=== Catatan ===
{{notelist|30em}}
{{notelist|26em}}


=== Referensi ===
=== Referensi ===
{{reflist|30em}}
{{reflist|26em}}

=== Karya yang disitasi ===
'''Buku dan bab buku'''
{{refbegin|indent=yes|26em}}
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*{{cite book|last1=Abdalla|first1=Raqiya D.|author-link=Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla|editor1-last=Abusharaf|editor1-first=Rogaia Mustafa|title=Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives|date=2007|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|ref=harv|chapter='My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia}}
*{{cite book|last1=Ahmadu|first1=Fuambai|author-link=Fuambai Ahmadu|editor1-last=Shell-Duncan|editor1-first=Bettina|editor2-last=Hernlund|editor2-first=Ylva|title=Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change|date=2000|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|location=Boulder|ref=harv|chapter=Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision|chapter-url=}}
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*{{Cite book|last1=Asmani|first1=Ibrahim Lethome|last2=Abdi|first2=Maryam Sheikh|date=2008|title=De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam|publisher=Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID|location=Washington|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/De-linking%20FGM%20from%20Islam%20final%20report.pdf|ref=harv}}
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*{{cite book|last1=Berlin|first1=Adele|author-link=|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|chapter=Circumcision|ref=harv}}
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*{{cite book |last1=Boyle |first1=Elizabeth Heger |title=Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community |date=2002 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Shaye J. D.|title=Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism|date=2005|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=El Guindi|first1=Fadwa|author-link=Fadwa El Guindi|editor1-last=Abusharaf|editor1-first=Rogaia Mustafa|title=Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives|date=2007|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JO_SBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|ref=harv|chapter=Had ''This'' Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?}}
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*{{cite book|last1=Fiedler|first1=Klaus|author-link=|title=Christianity and African Culture|date=1996|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Gruenbaum|first1=Ellen|author-link=Ellen Gruenbaum|title=The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective|date=2001|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hoberman|first1=John Milton|author-link=|title=Testosterone Dreams: Rejuvenation, Aphrodisia, Doping|url=https://archive.org/details/testosteronedrea00hobe|url-access=registration|date=2005|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hosken|first1=Fran|author-link=Fran Hosken|title=The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females|date=1994|orig-year=1979|publisher=Women's International Network|location=Lexington|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hyam|first1=Ronald|author-link=|title=Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience|date=1990|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|ref=harv}}
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*{{cite book|last1=Kenyatta|first1=Jomo|author-link=|title=Facing Mount Kenya|date=1962|orig-year=1938|publisher= Vintage Books|location=New York|url=|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Kenyon|first1=F. G.|author-link=|title=Greek Papyri in the British Museum|date=1893|publisher=British Museum|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/greekpapyriinbri03brit|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Kirby|first=Vicky|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XjctVvOzzcQC&printsec=frontcover|title=Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses |publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn and London |editor-last=Nnaemeka|editor-first=Obioma|year=2005|chapter=Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves?'|pages=|ref=harv }}
*{{cite book |last=Korieh|first=Chima|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XjctVvOzzcQC&printsec=frontcover|title=Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses |publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn and London |editor-last=Nnaemeka|editor-first=Obioma|year=2005|chapter='Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse|pages=|ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|last1=Kunhiyop|first1=Samuel Waje|author-link=|title=African Christian Ethics|date=2008|publisher=Zondervan|location=Grand Rapids, MI|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Mackie|first1=Gerry|author-link=Gerry Mackie|editor1-last=Shell-Duncan|editor1-first=Bettina|editor2-last=Hernlund|editor2-first=Ylva|title=Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change|date=2000|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|location=Boulder|ref=harv|chapter=Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End|chapter-url=http://www.polisci.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/BeginningOfEndMackie2000.pdf|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210333/http://www.polisci.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/BeginningOfEndMackie2000.pdf|archivedate=29 October 2013}}
*{{cite book|last1=Mandara|first1=Mairo Usman|editor1-last=Shell-Duncan|editor1-first=Bettina|editor2-last=Hernlund|editor2-first=Ylva|title=Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change|date=2000|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|location=Boulder|ref=harv|chapter=Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate}}
*{{cite book|last1=McGregor|first1=Deborah Kuhn|author-link=|title=From Midwives to Medicine: The Birth of American Gynecology|date=1998|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick|ref=harv|isbn=}}
*{{cite book |last=Nnaemeka|first=Obioma|authorlink=Obioma Nnaemeka|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XjctVvOzzcQC&printsec=frontcover|title=Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses |publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn and London |editor-last=Nnaemeka|editor-first=Obioma|year=2005|chapter=African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus|pages=27–46|ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|last1=Nussbaum|first1=Martha|author-link=Martha Nussbaum|title=Sex and Social Justice|date=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York and Oxford|url=https://books.google.com/?id=7zoaKIolT9oC&printsec=frontcover|ref=harv|isbn=9780195355017}}
*{{cite book|last1=Nzegwu|first1=Nkiru|title=African Sexualities: A Reader|date=2011|publisher=Fahamu/Pambazuka|location=Cape Town|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSqIrrswbG0C|ref=harv|chapter='Osunality' (or African eroticism)|isbn=9780857490162}}
*{{cite book |last1=Peterson |first1=Derek R. |title=Ethnic Patriotism and the East African Revival: A History of Dissent, c.&nbsp;1935–1972 |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |ref=harv}}
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{{refend}}

'''Artikel jurnal'''
{{refbegin|indent=yes|26em}}
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*{{Cite journal|last=Shell-Duncan|first=Bettina|date=June 2008|title=From Health to Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting and the Politics of Intervention|url=|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=110|issue=2|pages=225–236|doi=10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00028.x|jstor=27563985|ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Silverman |first1=Eric K. |title=Anthropology and Circumcision |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |date=2004 |volume=33 |issue= |pages=419–445|jstor=25064860 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143706 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Lynn M. |title='Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya |journal=Gender and History |date=November 1996 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=338–363 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0424.1996.tb00062.x |pmid=12322506 |ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Toubia|first=Nadia F.|last2=Sharief|first2=E. H.|date=September 2003|title=Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?|journal=International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics|volume=82|issue=3|pages=251–261|issn=0020-7292|pmid=14499972|ref=harv|doi=10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Toubia|first=Nadia|date=15 September 1994|title=Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue|url=|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=331|issue=11|pages=712–716|doi=10.1056/NEJM199409153311106|issn=0028-4793|pmid=8058079|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Wakabi|first=Wairagala|date=31 March 2007|title=Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(07)60508-X/fulltext|journal=Lancet|volume=369|issue=9567|pages=1069–1070|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X|pmid=17405200|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Yasin|first=Berivan A.|last2=Al-Tawil|first2=Namir G.|last3=Shabila|first3=Nazar P.|last4=Al-Hadithi|first4=Tariq S.|date=8 September 2013|title=Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city|journal=BMC Public Health|volume=13|pages=809|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-13-809|issn=1471-2458|pmc=3844478|pmid=24010850|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Yoder|first=P. Stanley|last2=Wang|first2=Shanxiao|last3=Johansen|first3=Elise|date=June 2013|title=Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen|url=|journal=Studies in Family Planning|volume=44|issue=2|pages=189–204|doi=10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x|issn=0039-3665|pmid=23720002|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Yoder|first=P. Stanley|last2=Khan|first2=Shane|date=March 2008|title=Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total|url=http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/WP39/WP39.pdf|publisher=USAID|journal=DHS Working Papers|volume=|issue=39|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

'''Laporan PBB'''
{{refbegin|indent=yes|26em}}
*{{wikicite| ref=UNICEF2013 |reference = Cappa, Claudia, et al. [http://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/FGMC_Lo_res_Final_26.pdf ''Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change''], New York: United Nations Children's Fund, July 2013.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=WHO2014|reference = [http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/overview/en/ ''Classification of female genital mutilation''], Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=CEDAW2013|reference=[https://web.archive.org/web/20131003080552/http://www.scottishhumanrights.com/application/resources/documents/ConcObsCEDAW.doc "Concluding observations on the seventh periodic report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland"], United Nations Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 26 July 2013 ([https://www.webcitation.org/6p7HVdDRp?url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003080552/http://www.scottishhumanrights.com/application/resources/documents/ConcObsCEDAW.doc WebCite]).}}
*{{wikicite|ref=Diop2008|reference = Diop, Nafissatou J.; Moreau, Amadou; Benga, Hélène. [http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/wcaro_SEN_TOSTAN_EarlyMarriage.pdf "Evaluation of the Long-term Impact of the TOSTAN Program on the Abandonment of FGM/C and Early Marriage: Results from a qualitative study in Senega"], UNICEF, January 2008.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEFDjibouti2013|reference=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141030110609/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_DJI.pdf "Djibouti"], Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, December 2013.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=WHO2008|reference = [http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241596442_eng.pdf ''Eliminating Female genital mutilation: An Interagency Statement''], Geneva: World Health Organization, 2008.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEFEritrea|reference=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141030113629/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_ERI.pdf "Eritrea"], Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, July 2014.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=WHO2018|reference=[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ "Female genital mutilation"], Geneva: World Health Organization, 31 January 2018.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEF2016|reference = [http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf ''Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern''], New York: United Nations Children's Fund, February 2016.}}
*{{wikicite| ref=WHO2005 |reference = [https://web.archive.org/web/20140428022806/http://www.who.int/gender/other_health/teachersguide.pdf ''Female Genital Mutilation: A Teachers' Guide''], Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005.}}
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*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEF2014|reference = [https://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGM-C_Report_7_15_Final_LR.pdf ''Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: What Might the Future Hold?''], New York: UNICEF, 22 July 2014.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEFpress2July2007|reference=[https://www.unicef.org/media/media_40168.html<!--https://web.archive.org/web/20080520160125/http://www.unicef.org/egypt/media_3875.html--> "Fresh progress toward the elimination of female genital mutilation and cutting in Egypt"], UNICEF press release, 2 July 2007.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UN2010|reference = [http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/70264/1/WHO_RHR_10.9_eng.pdf ''Global strategy to stop health-care providers from performing female genital mutilation''], UNAIDS, UNDP, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WHO, FIGO, ICN, IOM, MWIA, WCPT, WMA, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2010.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEFIndonesia2016|reference = [https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Indonesia/FGMC_IDN.pdf "Indonesia"], Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, February 2016.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNresolution2012|reference=[http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/67/146 "67/146. Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations"], United Nations General Assembly, adopted 20 December 2012.}}
*{{wikicite| ref=IzettToubia1932 |reference = Izett, Susan; Toubia, Nahid. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053613/https://apps.who.int/dsa/cat98/fgmbook.htm ''Female Genital Mutilation: An Overview''], Geneva: World Health Organization, 1998.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNFPA2013|reference = ''Joint Evaluation. UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Program on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change, 2008–2012'', [http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/admin-resource/FGM-report%2012_4_2013.pdf Volume 1], [http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/admin-resource/FGMC_Final%20Evaluation%20Report_Volume%20II_September09.pdf Volume 2], [http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/admin-resource/ENG_FGM%20executive%20summary%20proof%205.pdf "Executive Summary"], New York: UNFPA, UNICEF, September 2013.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNFPA–UNICEF2012|reference = [http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNICEF-UNFPA%20Joint%20Programme%20AR_final_v14.pdf ''Joint Program on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change''], Annual report 2012, New York: UNFPA–UNICEF, 2012.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=MackieLeJeune2008|reference=[[Gerry Mackie|Mackie, Gerry]]; LeJeune, John. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131014151512/http://www.polisci.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/UNICEF.pdf "Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory"], Innocenti Working Paper No. XXX, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2008.}}
*{{wikicite| ref=UNICEF2005 |reference = Miller, Michael; Moneti, Francesca. [http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/fgm_eng.pdf ''Changing a harmful social convention: Female genital cutting/mutilation''], Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2005.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEF2010|reference = Moneti, Francesca; Parker, David. [http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/fgm_insight_eng.pdf ''The Dynamics of Social Change''], Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, October 2010.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEFNigeria|reference=[https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Nigeria/FGMC_NGA.pdf "Nigeria"], Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, July 2014.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=UNICEFSomalia|reference=[https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Somalia/FGMC_SOM.pdf "Somalia"], Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, December 2013.}}
*{{wikicite|ref=WHO2016|reference = [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK368483/ ''WHO Guidelines on the Management of Health Complications from Female Genital Mutilation''], Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016. {{PMID|27359024}}}}
{{refend}}


{{Khitan pada wanita}}
{{Khitan pada wanita}}

Revisi per 17 Mei 2020 07.05

Sebuah plakat di dekat Kapchorwa, Uganda, 2004.
DefinisiDidefinisikan pada tahun 1977 oleh WHO, UNICEF, dan UNFPA sebagai "penghilangan sebagian atau seluruh bagian luar kelamin wanita atau perlukaan lainnya pada organ kelamin wanita untuk alasan nonmedis."[1]
AreaAfrika, Asia Tenggara, Timur Tengah, dan pada berbagai komunitas di area ini.[2]
JumlahLebih dari 200 juta perempuan di 27 negara Afrika, Indonesia, Kurdistan Irak, dan Yaman (tahun 2016).[3]
UsiaBeberapa hari setelah kelahiran sampai pubertas.[4]
Prevalensi

Khitan pada wanita (Inggris: female genital mutilation disingkat FGM),[a] juga dikenal sebagai pemotongan genital wanita dan sunat wanita, adalah pemotongan atau penghilangan sebagian atau seluruh bagian luar kelamin wanita. Praktik ini ditemukan di Afrika, Asia, dan Timur Tengah, serta pada berbagai komunitas di negara-negara yang biasa melakukan FGM. UNICEF memperkirakan pada tahun 2016 bahwa 200 juta wanita di 30 negara (27 negara Afrika, Indonesia, Kurdistan Irak, dan Yaman) telah menjalani prosedur ini.[3]

FGM biasanya dilakukan oleh penyunat tradisional menggunakan pisau dan dilakukan mulai dari beberapa hari setelah kelahiran hingga masa pubertas dan seterusnya. Pada separuh negara dengan angka-angka nasional yang diketahui, sebagian besar pemotongan dilakukan ketika anak perempuan berusia di bawah lima tahun.[6] Cara pemotongan berbeda-beda menurut negara atau kelompok etnis, seperti penghilangan tudung klitoris dan kelenjar klitoris; penghilangan labia bagian dalam; dan penghilangan labia bagian dalam dan luar, serta penutupan vulva. Pada metode terakhir ini, yang dikenal sebagai infibulasi, sebuah lubang kecil disisakan untuk aliran urin dan cairan menstruasi; vagina dibuka untuk hubungan intim dan dibuka lebih lanjut untuk melahirkan.[7]

Praktik ini berakar pada ketidaksetaraan gender, upaya untuk mengendalikan seksualitas perempuan, dan gagasan tentang kemurnian, kerendahan hati, dan keindahan. FGM biasanya diprakarsai dan dilakukan oleh wanita, yang melihatnya sebagai sumber kehormatan dan ketakutan bahwa kegagalan untuk melakukan FGM pada anak perempuan dan cucu perempuan mereka akan mengantarkan gadis-gadis itu pada pengucilan sosial.[8] Efek kesehatan yang merugikan tergantung pada metode yang diambil, seperti infeksi berulang, kesulitan buang air kecil dan pembuangan cairan menstruasi, nyeri kronis, perkembangan kista, ketidakmampuan untuk hamil, komplikasi saat melahirkan, dan perdarahan fatal.[7] Tidak ada manfaat kesehatan FGM yang diketahui.[9]

Telah ada upaya internasional sejak tahun 1970-an untuk membujuk para praktisi untuk meninggalkan FGM. Praktik ini telah dilarang atau dibatasi di sebagian besar negara yang menerapkan FGM, meskipun peraturan yang ada tidak ditegakkan dengan baik. Sejak 2010, Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB) telah menyerukan kepada para penyedia layanan kesehatan untuk berhenti melakukan semua bentuk FGM, termasuk reinfibulasi setelah melahirkan dan "penandaan" tudung klitoris secara simbolis.[10] Perlawanan terhadap FGM juga dikritik, terutama dari kalangan antropolog, yang mengajukan pertanyaan sulit tentang relativisme budaya dan universalitas hak asasi manusia.[11]

Terminologi


Metode


Klasifikasi

Menurut WHO, khitan pada wanita terbagi dalam 4 tipe:[12]

  • Tipe 1: Clitoridectomy, yaitu pemotongan klitoris atau kulit yang menutupi klitoris (kulup).
  • Tipe 2: Eksisi, yaitu pemotongan klitoris disertai pemotongan sebagian atau seluruh bibir kecil alat kelamin perumpuan (labia minora), dengan atau tanpa pemotongan sebagian atau seluruh bibir besar alat kelamin perempuan (labia majora).
  • Tipe 3: Infibulasi, yaitu pemotongan bagian atau seluruh alat kelamin perempuan luar disertai penjahitan/penyempitan lubang vagina, dengan atau tanpa pemotongan klitoris.
  • Tipe 4: Semua macam prosedur lain yang dilakukan pada kelamin perempuan untuk tujuan non-medis, termasuk penusukkan, perlubangan, pengirisan, dan penggoresan terhadap klitoris.

Manfaat khitan perempuan

WHO mengatakan bahwa "[khitan pada wanita] tidak memiliki manfaat kesehatan sama sekali terhadap perempuan"[13].

Khitan perempuan dan HIV

Khitan perempuan dapat menambah risiko untuk kaum wanita terkena penyakit berbahaya seperti HIV[14].

Di dunia

Di dunia banyak terjadi di Sabuk Afrika dan umumnya dilakukan khitan pada wanita secara berlebihan dengan alasan yang mungkin tidak masuk akal, seperti akan sulit mendapat jodoh atau yang tidak dikhitan dikatakan pelacur.

Sunat pada wanita secara berlebihan dapat memicu pendarahan, infeksi, kesulitan buang air kecil dan menstruasi serta infeksi saluran kemih. Sedangkan dalam jangka panjang dapat memicu trauma emosi, kesulitan melakukan hubungan seksual dan melahirkan serta gangguan masalah kesuburan rahim dan juga kelahiran bayi mereka.[15]

Pada tahun 2015, diperkirakan ada lebih dari 200 juta perempuan di dunia yang telah mengalami khitan, termasuk sekitar 60 juta perempuan dari Indonesia [16].

Di Indonesia

Di Indonesia jarang ditemui mutilasi total pada alat kelamin wanita seperti di Afrika. Yang sering dilakukan di Indonesia saat ini adalah:

  • Secara simbolis, menempelkan gunting, pisau, atau silet pada klitoris
  • Secara simbolis, menggores atau menusuk klitoris
  • Secara simbolis, menyentuh atau 'membersihkan' klitoris dan alat kelamin perempuan luar dengan sepontong kunyit segar atau tumbuhan/daun lain seperti seikat daun kelor
  • Memotong sedikit dari penutup (kulup) klitoris
  • Memotong semua penutup (kulup) klitoris
  • Memotong sedikit dari klitoris.

Pada tahun 2001-2003 penelitian di enam provinsi mendapati bahwa terdapat 28 persen yang melakukan khitan pada perempuan secara simbolis dengan sedikit goresan atau menempelkan gunting pada alat kelamin perempuan.[17]

Dari segi pendidikan, 87,5 persen permpuan tanpa pendidikan tinggi mengkhitankan anak perempuannya, sedangkan 66,2 persen perempuan berpendidikan tinggi mengkhitankan anak perempuannya bahkan hingga pemotongan klitoris secara penuh dan tidak menyadari akibat-akibatnya.[18]

Fatwa MUI (Majelis Ulama Indonesia) menyatakan bahwa sunat perempuan boleh dilakukan asal tidak menyimpang. MUI menegaskan batasan atau tata cara khitan perempuan seusia dengan ketentuan syariah, yaitu khitan perempuan dilakukan cukup dengan hanya menghilangkan selaput (jaldah atau praeputium atau kulup) yang menutupi klitoris; dan khitan perempuan tidak boleh dilakukan secara berlebihan, seperti memotong atau melukai klitoris (insisi dan eksisi).

Pada sisi lain, Komnas Anti Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan mengatakan khitan yang dilakukan terhadap wanita walaupun secara simbolis tetap merupakan tindak kekerasan. Pada tahun 2006 Kementerian Kesehatan telah mengeluarkan larangan sunat perempuan yang dilakukan oleh petugas kesehatan. Walaupun begitu, masih banyak dukun bayi dan petugas kesehatan menawarkan dan melakukan khitan pada bayi perempuan.

Dalam rangka Hari Internasional Anti Sunat Perempuan (tiap tanggal 6 Februari), Komnas Perempuan mengatakan masih ada khitan pada wanita, karena faktor budaya dan agama, dan yang mengatakan bahwa khitan pada wanita dimuliakan, dikarenakan hal tersebut dilihat dari perspektif laki-laki saja.[19]

Sumber

Catatan

  1. ^ Martha Nussbaum (Sex and Social Justice, 1999): "Although discussions sometimes use the terms 'female circumcision' and 'clitoridectomy', 'female genital mutilation' (FGM) is the standard generic term for all these procedures in the medical literature ... The term 'female circumcision' has been rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests the fallacious analogy to male circumcision ..."[5]

Referensi

  1. ^ WHO 2014.
  2. ^ UNICEF 2013, 5.
  3. ^ a b c d UNICEF 2016.
  4. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama UNICEF2013p50
  5. ^ Nussbaum 1999, 119.
  6. ^ Untuk pemotong dan pisaunya: UNICEF 2013, 2, 44–46; untuk usia: 50.
  7. ^ a b Abdulcadir et al. 2011.
  8. ^ UNICEF 2013, 15; Toubia & Sharief 2003.
  9. ^ WHO 2018.
  10. ^ UN 2010; Askew et al. 2016.
  11. ^ Shell-Duncan 2008, 225; Silverman 2004, 420, 427.
  12. ^ "Classification of female genital mutilation". Diakses tanggal 13 February 2016. 
  13. ^ Female Genital Mutilation
  14. ^ http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ Female Genital Mutilation
  15. ^ "Gbla dan Kisah Sunat Perempuan". Diakses tanggal 12 Maret 2015. 
  16. ^ http://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/02/08/466033967/unicef-estimate-of-female-genital-mutiliation-up-by-70-million
  17. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Khitan
  18. ^ Fuad Mahbub Siraj. "Khitan bagi Perempuan Ditinjau dari Kesehatan dan Islam". Diakses tanggal 12 Maret 2015. 
  19. ^ Antonius Eko (6 Februari 2015). "Agama dan Budaya Pemicu Sunat Perempuan di Indonesia". 

Karya yang disitasi

Buku dan bab buku

  • Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (2007). "Introduction: The Custom in Question". Dalam Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa. Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
  • Abdalla, Raqiya D. (2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". Dalam Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa. Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
  • Ahmadu, Fuambai (2000). "Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision". Dalam Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva. Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. 
  • Allen, Peter Lewis (2000). The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and PresentPerlu mendaftar (gratis). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
  • Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008). De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam (PDF). Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. 
  • Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 9780857490162. 
  • Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999). The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Routledge. 
  • Berlin, Adele (2011). "Circumcision". The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. New York: Oxford University Press. 
  • Boddy, Janice (2007). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
  • Boddy, Janice (1989). Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 
  • Boyle, Elizabeth Heger (2002). Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 
  • Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism. Berkeley: University of California Press. 
  • El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". Dalam Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa. Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
  • El Dareer, Asma (1982). Woman, Why Do You Weep: Circumcision and its Consequences. London: Zed Books. 
  • Fiedler, Klaus (1996). Christianity and African Culture. Leiden: Brill. 
  • Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
  • Hoberman, John Milton (2005). Testosterone Dreams: Rejuvenation, Aphrodisia, DopingPerlu mendaftar (gratis). Berkeley: University of California Press. 
  • Hosken, Fran (1994) [1979]. The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females. Lexington: Women's International Network. 
  • Hyam, Ronald (1990). Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 
  • Karanja, James (2009). The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church. Göttingen: Cuvillier Verlag. 
  • Kenyatta, Jomo (1962) [1938]. Facing Mount Kenya. New York: Vintage Books. 
  • Kenyon, F. G. (1893). Greek Papyri in the British Museum. London: British Museum. 
  • Kirby, Vicky (2005). "Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves?'". Dalam Nnaemeka, Obioma. Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. 
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