Thích Quảng Đức

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Thích Quảng Đức
Agama Buddha Mahayana
Lainnya name(s) Bo Tat Thich Quang Duc
(Bodhisattva Thich Quang Duc)
Pribadi
Lahir 1897
Hoi Khanh, Indochina Perancis
Meninggal 11 Juni 1963 (berusia 65–66)
Saigon, Vietnam Selatan
Jabatan Senior
Berpusat di Vietnam Selatan
Gelar Biksu Buddha
Lama menjabat 1917–1963
Karir beragama
Ordinasi 1917
Jabatan Ketua Ritus Seremonial Kongregasi Biksu Vietnam
Pemimpin pagoda Phước Hòa
Thích merupakan sebuah nama penghargaan Buddha. Quảng Đức, merupakan atribut deskriptif meritori; lihat nama dharma.

Thích Quảng Đức (pengucapan bahasa Inggris: /ˌtɪtʃ ˌkwɒŋ ˈdʊk/ TICH KWONG DUUK; 1897 – 11 Juni 1963, lahir Lam Van Tuc), merupakan seorang biksu Buddha Mahayana Vietnam yang membakar dirinya sampai mati di sebuah jalan persimpangan Saigon pada tanggal 11 Juni 1963. Quang Duc memprotes penganiayaan kaum Buddha oleh pemerintahan Katolik Roma Vietnam Selatan [1] yang dipimpin oleh Ngo Dinh Diem. Foto bakar dirinya mendatangkan simpati terhadap biksu-biksu Buddha dan tekanan terhadap rezim Ngo Dinh Diem pun berdatangan dari segala penjuru dunia. Malcolm Browne memenangkan sebuah Pengahargaan Pulitzer berkat foto kematian biksunya. Setelah kematiannya, tubuhnya dikremasi, namun jantungnya diawetkan.[2][3] This was interpreted as a simbol of compassion and led Buddhists to revere him as a bodhisattva, meaning heroic-minded one (sattva) untuk pencerahan (bodhi), which heightened the impact of his death on the public psyche.[4]

Aksi Quang Duc increased international pressure on Diệm dan led him to announce reforms with the intention of mollifying the Buddhists. However, the promised reforms were not implemented, leading to a deterioration in the dispute. Karena protes yang berkelanjutan, the ARVN Special Forces loyal to saudara Diệm, Ngo Dinh Nhu, memerintahkan penyerbuan nasional pada berbagai pagoda Buddha, seizing Quang Duc's heart dan causing deaths dan widespread damage. Several Buddhist monks followed Quang Duc's example, juga membakar diri mereka. Pada akhirnya, sebuah kudeta militer menggulingkan Diệm, yang dibunuh pada tanggal 2 November 1963.

Daftar isi

Biografi [sunting]

Riwayat hidup Quang Duc tercatat dari informasi beberapa organisasi Buddha. Tercatat bahwa beliau lahir di desa Hoi Khanh, distrik Van Ninh, provinsi Khanh Hoa, Vietnam. Saat lahir, beliau bernama Lam Van Tuc, satu dari tujuh anak dari Lam Huu Ung dan istrinya, Nguyen Thi Nuong. Pada umur 7 tahun, beliau diajari tentang Buddhisme oleh Hòa thượng Thích Hoằng Thâm, seorang paman kandung dan guru spiritual. Thích Hoằng Thâm raised him sebagai seorang anak laki-laki dan Lam Van Tuc changed his name to Nguyen Van Khiet. Pada umur 15 tahun, he took the samanera (novice) vows and was ordained as a biksu at age 20 under the nama dharma Thich Quang Duc. Setelah berordinasi, he traveled to a mountain near Ninh Hòa, vowing to live the life of a solitary Buddhism-practicing hermit untuk tiga tahun. He returned in later life to open pagoda Thien Loc at his mountain retreat.[5][6]

Setelah his self-imposed isolation ended, he began to travel around pusat Vietnam expounding the dharma. Setelah dua tahun, he went into retreat at the Sac Tu Thien An pagoda near Nha Trang. Pada tahun 1932, he was appointed an inspector for the Buddhist Association in Ninh Hòa before becoming the inspector of monks in his home province of Khánh Hòa. During this period in central Vietnam, he was responsible for the construction of 14 kuil.[7] Pada tahun 1934, he moved to southern Vietnam and traveled throughout the provinces spreading Buddhist teachings. Selain di Vietnam Selatan, beliau juga tinggal dua tahun di Kamboja untuk mempelajari tradisi Buddha Theravada.

Setelah kunjungannya ke Kamboja, beliau merencanakan untuk membangun 17 kuil baru yang pada waktu itu di daerah selatan. The last of the 31 kuil baru that he was responsible for constructing was pagoda Quan The Am di Phu Nhuan pada distrik Gia Dinh on the outskirts of Saigon.[7] The street on which the temple stands is now named in Quang Duc's honor. After the temple-building phase, Đức was appointed to serve sebagai Ketua Ritus Seremonial Kongregasi Biksu Vietnam, dan sebagai Pemimpin pagoda Phuoc Hoa, which was the initial location of the Association for Buddhist Studies of Vietnam (ABSV).[7] When the office of the ABSV was relocated to the Pagoda Xa Loi, pagoda utama Saigon, Đức resigned.[5]

Latar belakang agama [sunting]

!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Penembakan Huế Phật Đản
Bendera Vatikan

Di sebuah negara dimana menurut survey agama pada waktu itu mengatakan bahwa mayoritas Buddha yang berjumlah antara 70 dan 90 persen,[8][9][10][11] Presiden Diem yang merupakan seorang penganut minoritas Katolik, dan kerap melakukan tindak diskriminatif, penyiksaan dan pembunuhan terhadap umat Buddha dalam kerangka kebijakan meng-Katolik-kan Vietnam.[12] Diệm once told a high-ranking officer, forgetting that the officer was of Buddhist descent, "Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places. They can be trusted."[13] Many officers in the Tentara Republik Vietnam converted to Roman Catholicism as their military prospects depended on it.[13] Di instansi pemerintah, khususnya militer, promosi diutamakan bagi penganut agama Katolik atau penganut Buddha yang rela berpindah agama menjadi Katolik.[14]

Some Roman Catholic priests ran their own private armies,[15] and there were forced conversions and looting, shelling, and demolition of pagodas in some areas, to which the government turned a blind eye.[16] Some Buddhist villages converted en masse to receive aid or avoid being forcibly resettled by Diệm's regime.[17] The "private" status that was imposed on Buddhism by the French, which required official permission to be obtained by those wishing to conduct public Buddhist activities, was not repealed by Diệm.[18] Catholics were also de facto exempt from corvée labor, which the government obliged all citizens to perform, and United States aid was distributed disproportionately to Catholic majority villages by Diệm's regime.[19]

Gereja Katolik Roma was the largest landowner in the country dan enjoyed special exemptions in property acquisition, and land owned by the Gereja Katolik Roma was exempt from land reform.[20] The white and gold Bendera Vatikan was regularly flown at all major public events in Vietnam Selatan,[21] dan Diệm dedicated his country to the Bunda Maria pada tahun 1959.[19]

Buddhist discontent erupted following a ban in early May on flying the bendera Buddha di Huế on Waisak, hari kelahiran Gautama Buddha. Just days before, Catholics had been encouraged to fly the bendera vatikan pada sebuah acara untuk Archbishop Ngo Dinh Thuc of Hue, saudara tertua Diem.[rujukan?] A large crowd of Buddhists protested the ban, defying the government by flying Buddhist flags on Vesak and marching on the government broadcasting station. Government forces fired into the crowd of protesters, killing nine people. Diệm's refusal to take responsibility — he blamed the Viet Cong for the deaths — led to further Buddhist protests and calls for religious equality.[22] As Diem remained unwilling to comply with Buddhist demands, the frequency of protests increased.

Bakar diri [sunting]

Foto dari jurnalis Malcolm Browne ketika Quang Duc membakar dirinya. Sebuah foto yang memenangkan 1963 World Press Photo of the Year.[23]

Pada tanggal 10 Juni 1963, U.S. correspondents were informed that "something important" would happen the following morning on the road outside the Cambodian embassy di Saigon.[24] Most of the reporters disregarded the message, since the krisis Buddha had at that point been going on for over a month, and the next day only a few journalists turned up, including David Halberstam of The New York Times and Malcolm Browne, the Saigon bureau chief for the Associated Press.[24] Đức arrived as part of a procession that had begun at a nearby pagoda. Around 350 monks and nuns marched in two phalanges, preceded by an Austin sedan Westminster, carrying banners printed in both English dan Vietnam. They denounced the Diệm government and its policy towards Buddhists, demanding that it fulfill its promises of religious equality.[24] Another monk offered himself, but Đức's seniority prevailed.[2]

The act itself occurred at the intersection[b] of Jalan Phan Đình Phùng (sekarang Jalan Nguyen Dinh Chieu) dan Jalan Le Van Duyet (sekarang Jalan Cach Mạng Thang Tam) a few blocks Southwest of the Presidential Palace (now the Reunification Palace). Duc emerged from the car along with two other monks. One placed a cushion on the road while the second opened the trunk and took out a lima jerigen gasoline. As the marchers formed a circle around him, Duc calmly seated himself in the traditional Buddhist meditative posisi teratai on the cushion. A colleague emptied the contents of the gasoline container over Đức's head. Đức rotated a string of wooden prayer beads and recited the words Nianfo ("homage to Amitābha Buddha") sebelum striking a match and dropping it on himself. Flames consumed his robes and flesh, dan minyak berwarna hitam membakar tubuhnya.[24][25]

Dalam pesan terakhirnya yang disampaikan melalui sebuah surat, Quang Duc menulis:

Sebelum aku menutup mata dan mendekatkan diriku kepada Buddha, dengan penuh rasa hormat aku meminta kepada Ngo Dinh Diem untuk menunjukkan sedikit rasa belas kasih kepada rakyatmu dan memberlakukan kesamaan agama untuk mempertahankan kesatuan negeri ini. Aku juga memanggil saudara-saudara dalam se-dhamma untuk melakukan pengorbanan dalam rangka melindungi Buddhisme.[5]

David Halberstam mengatakan:

Aku mengamati lagi, tetapi sekali saja sudah cukup. Api itu datang dari manusia; tubuhnya perlahan layu dan mengerut ke atas, kepalanya menghitam dan menjadi arang. Di udara tercium bau daging manusia terbakar; seorang manusia secara mengejutkan terbakar dengan cepat. Dibelakangku, aku bisa mendengar isak para warga Vietnam yang sekarang berkumpul. Aku terlalu shock untuk menangis, terlalu bingung untuk mencatat atau mengajukan pertanyaan, dan terlalu bingung untuk berpikir ... Ketika ia terbakar, ia tidak pernah bergerak sedikitpun, tidak mengucapkan suara, dilakukan dengan ketenangan luar biasa, menjadi kontras dengan ratapan orang-orang di sekelilingnya.[26]
Saat ini, mobil milik Quang Duc pergi saat membakar dirinya disimpan di Pagoda Thien Mu Huế.
Mobil Quang Duc, Desember 2011

Police tried to reach him, but could not break through the circle of Buddhist clergy. One of the policemen threw himself to the ground and prostrated himself in front of Duc in reverence.[2] The spectators were mostly stunned into silence, but some wailed and several began praying. Many of the monks and nuns, as well as some shocked passersby, prostrated themselves before the burning monk.[2]

Dalam bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Vietnam, seorang biksu berbicara melalui sebuah mikrophone, "Seorang pendeta Buddha membakar dirinya sampai mati. Seorang pendeta Buddha menjadi seorang martir." Setelah terbakar selama sepuluh menit, seluruh tubuh Duc was fully immolated and it eventually toppled backwards onto its back. Once the fire subsided, a group of monks covered the smoking corpse with yellow robes, picked it up and tried to fit it into a coffin, but the limbs could not be bent and one of the arms protruded from the wooden box as he was carried to the nearby pagoda Xá Lợi di pusat Saigon. Outside the pagoda, students unfurled bilingual banners which read: "A Buddhist priest burns himself for our five requests."[24]

Pada pukul 1:30 p.m, around one thousand monks had congregated inside to hold a meeting while outside a large crowd of pro-Buddhist students had formed a human barrier around it. The meeting soon ended and all but a hundred monks slowly left the compound. Nearly one thousand monks accompanied by laypeople returned to the cremation site. The police lingered nearby. pa 6:00 p.m, 30 nuns and six monks were arrested for holding a prayer meeting on the street outside Xá Lợi. The police encircled the pagoda, blocking public passage and giving observers the impression an armed siege was imminent by donning riot gear.[27] That evening, thousands of Saigonese claimed to have seen a vision of the Buddha's face in the sky at sunset. They claimed that in the vision the Buddha was weeping.

Funeral dan aftermath [sunting]

After the self-immolation, the U.S. put more pressure on Diệm to re-open negotiations on the faltering agreement. Diệm had scheduled an emergency cabinet meeting at 11:30 on 11 June to discuss the Buddhist crisis which he believed to be winding down. Following Quang Duc's death, Diệm canceled the meeting and met individually with his ministers. Acting U.S. Ambassador to South Vietnam William Trueheart warned Nguyen Dinh Thuan, Diệm's Secretary of State, of the desperate need for an agreement, saying that the situation was "dangerously near breaking point" and expected Diệm would meet the Buddhists' five-point manifesto. Sekretaris Negara Amerika Serikat Dean Rusk warned the Saigon embassy that the White House would publicly announce that it would no longer "associate itself" with the regime if this did not occur.[28] The Joint Communique and concessions to the Buddhists were signed on 16 June.[29]

15 Juni was set as the date for the funeral, dan pada hari itu 4,000 orang mendatangi pagoda Xá Lợi, namun untuk sebuah acara to be postponed. Pada tanggal 19 Juni, his remains were carried out of Xa Loi to a cemetery 16 kilometer (9.9 mil) south of the city for a re-cremation and funeral ceremony. Following the signing of the Joint Communique, attendance was limited by agreement between Buddhist leaders and police to approximately 400 biksu.[29]

Pengawetan jantung dan simbolis [sunting]

Tubuhnya dikremasi during the funeral, namun jantung Đức diawetkan dan tidak terbakar.[2] It was considered to be holy and placed in a glass chalice at Pagoda Xa Loi.[3] The intact heart relic[2] is regarded as a symbol of compassion. Duc has subsequently been revered by Vietnamese Buddhists as a bodhisattva (Bồ Tát), and accordingly is often referred to in Vietnamese as Bồ Tát Thích Quảng Đức.[4][5] On 21 August, the ARVN Special Forces of Nhu attacked Xa Loi and other Buddhist pagodas across Vietnam. The secret police intended to confiscate Duc's ashes, but two monks had escaped with the urn, jumping over the back fence and finding safety at the U.S. Operations Mission next door.[30] Nhu's men managed to confiscate Đức's charred heart.[31]

Sebuah lokasi yang dipilih untuk aksi bakar diri, in front of the Cambodian embassy, raised questions as to whether it was coincidence atau sebuah pilihan simbolis. Trueheart and embassy official Charles Flowerree felt that the location was selected to show solidarity dengan pemerintah Kamboja Pangeran Norodom Sihanouk. Vietnam Selatan dan Kamboja had strained relations: in a speech on 22 Mei, Sihanouk had accused Diệm of mistreating Vietnamese dam etnis minoritas Buddhist Khmer. The pro-Diem Times of Vietnam mempublikasikan sebuah artikel pada tanggal 9 Juni which claimed that biksu Kamboja had been encouraging the krisis Buddha, asserting it was part of a Cambodian plot to extend its neutralist foreign policy into Vietnam Selatan. Flowerree noted that Diem was "ready and eager to see a fine Cambodian hand in all the aksi organisasi Buddha".[32]

Reaksi Diệm [sunting]

Ngo Dinh Diem

Diệm melalui sebuah radio pada pukul 19:00 pada hari kematian Đức, asserting that he was profoundly troubled by the event. He appealed untuk "ketenangan dan patriotisme", and announced that stalled negotiations would resume with the Buddhists. He claimed that negotiations had been progressing well and in a time of religious tension emphasized the role of the Roman Catholic philosophy of personalism in his rule. He alleged that extremists had twisted the facts and asserted that the Buddhists can "count on the Konstitusi, in other words, me."[27]

Tentara Republik Vietnam responded to the appeal, putting on a show of solidaritas dibawah Diệm to isolate dissident officers. Thirty high-ranking officers headed oleh Jenderal Le Van Ty declared their resolve to carry out seluruh misi entrusted to the army for the defense of the konstitusi dan Republik. The declaration was a veneer which masked a developing plot to oust Diệm.[33] Some of the signatories were to become personally involved in Diệm's overthrow and death in November. Jenderal Duong Van Minh dan Tran Van Don, the presidential military advisor dan the chief of the army who were to lead the coup, were overseas.[33]

Madame Nhu, istri dari adik termuda Diệm dan chief adviser Ngo Dinh Nhu, yang menjadi Ibu Negara Vietnam Selatan pada waktu itu (sebagai saudara Diệm), seorang Katolik yang pindah dari Buddha, mengatakan "mari bertepuk tangan bersama pada pertunjukan barbeque biarawan".[34] Beberapa bulan kemudian, pemerintahan Diệm mengeluarkan pernyataan bahwa Đức dalam keadaan mabuk obat-obatan sebelum dipaksa untuk melakukan bunuh diri.[35] Rezim juga menuduh Browne telah menyuap Đức, untuk membakar dirinya sendiri.[36]

Pendapat politisi dan media [sunting]

Foto yang diambil oleh Malcolm Browne of the self-immolation quickly spread across the wire services and were featured on the front pages of newspapers worldwide. The self-immolation was later regarded as a turning point in the krisis Buddha dan a critical point in the collapse of the Diệm regime.[37]

Sejarawan Seth Jacobs asserted that Duc had "reduced America's Diệm experiment to ashes as well" dan that "no amount of pleading could retrieve Diệm's reputation" once Browne's images had become ingrained into the psyche of the world public.[38] Ellen Hammer described the event as having "evoked dark images of persecution and horror corresponding to a profoundly Asian reality that passed the understanding of Westerners."[39] John Mecklin, an official from the U.S. embassy, noted that the photograph "had a shock effect of incalculable value to the Buddhist cause, becoming a symbol of the state of things in Vietnam."[37] William Colby, then chief of the Central Intelligence Agency's Far East Division, opined that Diệm "handled the Buddhist crisis fairly badly and allowed it to grow. But I really don't think there was much they could have done about it once that bonze burned himself."[37]

Presiden John F. Kennedy, pimpinan pemerintahan yang menjadi pendukung utama rezim Diệm, mengetahui kematian Đức pada saat membaca koran di pagi hari kemudian berbicara dengan saudaranya, Jaksa Agung Robert F. Kennedy, melalui telepon. Kennedy yang diwawancarai interrupted their conversation about segregation in Alabama by exclaiming "Yesus Kristus!" Beliau kemudian berkata "tidak ada gambar pada surat kabar dalam sejarah, yang begitu membangkitkan emosi ke seluruh dunia seperti halnya yang satu ini".[38] Senator AS Frank Church (D-ID), a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, claimed that "such grisly scenes have not been witnessed since the martir Kristen marched hand in hand into arena Romawi."[39]

Di Eropa, foto tersebut dijual di jalanan sebagai kartu pos pada tahun 1960an, dan komunis China mendistribusikan jutaan kopi foto ke Asia dan Afrika sebagai penggambaran dari "imperialisme AS".[36] One of Browne's photos remains affixed to the sedan in which Đức was riding and is part of a tourist attraction in Huế.[36]

Presiden AS John F. Kennedy mengatakan "tidak ada gambar pada surat kabar dalam sejarah, yang begitu membangkitkan emosi ke seluruh dunia seperti halnya yang satu ini"

For Browne and the Associated Press (AP), the pictures were a marketing success. Ray Herndon, the United Press International (UPI) correspondent who had forgotten to mengambil kameranya pada hari itu, was harshly criticized in private by his employer. UPI estimated that 5,000 pembaca di Sydney, then a city of around 1.5–2 juta, had switched to AP news sources.[40]

Diệm's English language mouthpiece, the Times of Vietnam, intensified its attacks on both journalists and Buddhists. Headlines such as "Xá Lợi politburo makes new threats" dan "Monks plot murder" were printed.[41] One article questioned the relationship antara biksu dan pers by posing the question as to why "so many young girls are buzzing in and out of Xá Lợi early [in the day]" and then going on to allege that they were brought in for sexual purposes for the U.S. reporters.[41]

Browne's award-winning photograph of Quang Duc's death has been reproduced in popular media for decades, and the incident itself has been used as a touchstone reference in many films and television programs. Pelukis Peter Hopkins (1911–1999) menggambar sebuah gambar anti-perang pada tahun 1964 incorporating Đức's self-immolation into a scene which depicts him at the moment of first flame, dengan Menteri Pertahanan AS Robert McNamara dan Presiden Diệm in the background being borne by coolies. The painting, "Ambassador of Goodwill" (C) 1994 M. J. Stutterheim (all rights reserved), dapat dilihat disini.

A still photo of the footage of Quang Duc's self-immolation was used for the cover of band rap metal Amerika Rage Against the Machine's self-titled debut album yang dikeluarkan pada tahun 1992.

Akhir dan pengaruh [sunting]

Despite the shock of the Western public, praktik bakar diri biksu Vietnam tidak berakhir sampai disitu. Instances of self-immolations di Vietnam had been recorded for centuries, usually carried out to honor Gautama Buddha. The most recently recorded case had been di Vietnam Utara pada tahun 1950. Otoritas kolonial Perancis had tried to eradicate the practice after their conquest of Vietnam pada abad ke-19, namun tidak sukses secara total. They did manage to prevent satu biksu dari setting fire to himself in Huế in the 1920an, but he managed to starve himself to death instead. Pada tahun 1920an dan 1930an, laporan surat kabar Saigon multiple instances of self-immolations by monks in a matter-of-fact style. Praktek ini juga dilakukan di kota China Harbin pada tahun 1948 dimana seoarang biksu seated himself in the posisi teratai on a pile of sawdust dan kedelai oil dan set fire to himself in protest against the treatment of Buddhism by komunis Mao Zedong. Jantungnya diawetkan, seperti halnya Đức.[42]

Monumen Venerabilis Thich Quang Duc Monument at the intersection where Quang Duc performed his self-immolation, Jalan Phan Dinh Phung (sekarang Nguyen Dinh Chieu) dan Jalan Le Van Duyet (sekarang Cach Mạng Thang Tam). (10°46′31″LU 106°41′13″BT / 10,775159°LU 106,686864°BT / 10.775159; 106.686864)

Setelah Đức, lima biksu Buddha lainnya membakar dirinya pada pertengahan Oktober 1963 sebagai protes Buddhist protests di Vietnam escalated.[43] Pada tanggal 1 November, Tentara Republik Vietnam menangkap Diệm dalam sebuah kudeta. Diệm dan Nhu kemudian dibunuh di kemudian hari.[44] Biksu mempunyai followed Đức's example since for other reasons.[45]

Aksi Đức ditiru oleh warga sipil Amerika Serikat yang memprotes against the Perang Vietnam:

  • Pada satu instansi, seorang pemuda of an American officer based at the U.S. Embassy in Saigon doused himself dengan minyak gas dan set himself on fire. Ia terbakar seirus sebelum api dipadamkan dan kemudian hanya berkata "Aku mencari tahu apa yang merupakan suka."[46]
  • Norman Morrison, seorang Quaker pasifis berumur 31 tahun, poured kerosene over himself and set himself alight below jendela lantai tiga of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara di the Pentagon pada 2 November 1965. Alice Herz, seorang wanita berumur 82 tahun, juga membakar dirinya pada tahun yang sama di Detroit, Michigan.[47]
  • Roger Allen LaPorte bakar diri diluar gedung Nasional Amerika di New York City pada tanggal 9 November 1965. Florence Beaumont membakar dirinya sampai mati diluar Gedung Federal di Los Angeles pada tanggal 15 Oktober 1967. George Winne, Jr., seorang pelajar, membakar dirinya pada tanggal 10 Mei 1970 di sebuah kampus Universitas California, San Diego dan meninggal pada hari berikutnya.


Catatan [sunting]

• a)^  Hòa thượng berarti "The Most Venerabilis" di Vietnam.

• b)^  In the satellite image (10°46′31″LU 106°41′13″BT / 10,775159°LU 106,686864°BT / 10.775159; 106.686864) of the Saigon intersection where Quang Duc performed his self-immolation, Phan Đình Phùng (now Nguyễn Đình Chiểu) Street runs NE-SW and Lê Văn Duyệt (now Cách Mạng Tháng Tám) Street runs NW-SE. On the western corner of the intersection stands a memorial to Quang Duc. For many years a Petrolimex fuel station stood on the northern corner, but this was replaced with a memorial park for Quang Duc.

Referensi [sunting]

  1. ^ Imolasi Diri: Membakar Tirani Lewat Tubuh - prioritasnews.com
  2. ^ a b c d e f Karnow 1997, hlm. 297
  3. ^ a b Jacobs 2006, hlm. 148
  4. ^ a b Huỳnh Minh 2006, hlm. 266
  5. ^ a b c d Nhị Tường 2005.
  6. ^ Huỳnh Minh 2006, hlm. 266–267.
  7. ^ a b c Huỳnh Minh 2006, hlm. 268
  8. ^ Gettleman 1966, hlm. 275–276, 366
  9. ^ Unattributed 1963a
  10. ^ Tucker 2000, hlm. 49, 291, 293
  11. ^ Ellsberg 1971, hlm. 729–733
  12. ^ Tucker 2000, hlm. 291
  13. ^ a b Gettleman 1966, hlm. 280–282
  14. ^ Harrison 1963b, hlm. 9
  15. ^ Warner 1963, hlm. 210
  16. ^ Fall 1963, hlm. 199
  17. ^ Buttinger 1967, hlm. 993.
  18. ^ Karnow 1997, hlm. 294
  19. ^ a b Jacobs 2006, hlm. 91
  20. ^ Buttinger 1967, hlm. 933.
  21. ^ Harrison 1963a, hlm. 5–6
  22. ^ Jacobs 2006, hlm. 140–50
  23. ^ Browne 1963
  24. ^ a b c d e Jacobs 2006, hlm. 147
  25. ^ Jones 2003, hlm. 268
  26. ^ Halberstam 1965, hlm. 211
  27. ^ a b Jones 2003, hlm. 270
  28. ^ Jones 2003, hlm. 272.
  29. ^ a b Hammer 1987, hlm. 149.
  30. ^ Jones 2003, hlm. 307–308
  31. ^ Unattributed 1963b
  32. ^ Jones 2003, hlm. 271.
  33. ^ a b Hammer 1987, hlm. 147
  34. ^ Langguth 2002, hlm. 216
  35. ^ Jones 2003, hlm. 284
  36. ^ a b c Prochnau 1995, hlm. 309.
  37. ^ a b c Jones 2003, hlm. 269
  38. ^ a b Jacobs 2006, hlm. 149
  39. ^ a b Hammer 1987, hlm. 145
  40. ^ Prochnau 1995, hlm. 316
  41. ^ a b Prochnau 1995, hlm. 320
  42. ^ Hammer 1987, hlm. 146
  43. ^ Jacobs 2006, hlm. 152, 168, 171.
  44. ^ Jacobs 2006, hlm. 173–180
  45. ^ Hammer 1987, hlm. 318
  46. ^ Prochnau 1995, hlm. 310
  47. ^ Zinn 2003, hlm. 486.

Bibliografi [sunting]

Pranala luar [sunting]

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