Kesenjangan ekonomi

Kesenjangan ekonomi, biasa dikenal dengan istilah kesenjangan pendapatan, kesenjangan kekayaan, dan jurang antara kaya dan miskin, mengacu pada persebaran ukuran ekonomi di antara individu dalam kelompok, kelompok dalam populasi, atau antar negara. Para ekonom umumnya mengakui tiga ukuran kesenjangan ekonomi: kekayaan, pendapatan, dan konsumsi.^[1] Persoalan kesenjangan ekonomi mencakup kesetaraan ekonomi, kesetaraan pengeluaran, dan kesetaraan kesempatan.^[2]

Sejumlah penelitian menyebut bahwa kesenjangan adalah masalah sosial yang semakin berkembang.^[3] Kesenjangan yang terlalu besar cenderung merugikan^[4]^[5] karena kesenjangan pendapatan dan pemusatan kekayaan mampu menghambat pertumbuhan jangka panjang.^[6]^[7]^[8] Penelitian statistik awal yang membandingkan kesenjangan dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi tidak menghasilkan kesimpulan apa-apa.^[9] Pada tahun 2011, peneliti Dana Moneter Internasional menunjukkan bahwa kesetaraan pendapatan yang lebih besar—berkurangnya kesenjangan—meningkatkan durasi pertumbuhan ekonomi sebuah negara dengan lebih cepat dibandingkan perdagangan bebas, korupsi pemerintah rendah, investasi asing, atau utang luar negeri rendah.^[10]

Kesenjangan ekonomi bervariasi tergantung masyarakat, waktu, struktur ekonomi, dan sistem. Istilah tersebut dapat mengacu pada persebaran pendapatan atau kekayaan lintas lapisan masyarakat pada waktu tertentu, atau pendapatan dan kekayaan seumur hidup dalam jangka panjang.^[11] Ada beberapa indeks numerik untuk mengukur kesenjangan ekonomi. Di antara metode pengukuran kesenjagan yang ada, koefisien Gini merupakan indeks yang paling terkenal.

Tabel[sunting | sunting sumber]

Tabel berikut menampilkan pola kekayaan antarnegara. Informasi di dalam tabel ini berasal dari Credit Suisse, Research Institute's "Global Wealth Databook", terbit tahun 2013.^[12]

Negara	Dewasa (Ribu)	Kekayaan rerata per dewasa (USD)	Kekayaan median per dewasa (USD)	Persebaran dewasa (%) menurut kekayaan (USD)					Gini %
Negara	Dewasa (Ribu)	Kekayaan rerata per dewasa (USD)	Kekayaan median per dewasa (USD)	di bawah 10rb	10rb – 100rb	100rb – 1jt	> 1jt	Total	Gini %
Denmark	4,190	255,066	57,675	39.5	17	37.8	5.7	100	107.7
Russian Federation	110,365	10,976	871	93.7	5.6	0.6	0.1	100	93.1
Ukraine	35,912	3,413	419	97.4	2.3	0.2	0	100	90
Kazakhstan	10,958	7,161	1,176	93.1	6.3	0.6	0.1	100	86.7
Lebanon	2,953	30,868	6,076	66.8	29.8	3.2	0.3	100	86.3
United States of America	239,279	301,140	44,911	30.7	33	30.7	5.5	100	85.1
Zimbabwe	6,690	2,913	479	93.9	5.8	0.3	0	100	83.8
Turkey	51,687	25,909	5,326	67	30.3	2.5	0.2	100	83.7
South Africa	31,034	19,613	3,051	72.3	24.9	2.6	0.1	100	83.6
Hong Kong, China	6,052	153,312	32,384	30.3	49.7	18.3	1.7	100	83.1
Philippines	56,730	8,799	1,849	88.1	11.1	0.8	0.1	100	82.9
Indonesia	157,869	11,839	2,393	81.1	17.6	1.3	0.1	100	82.8
Thailand	49,642	7,772	1,855	90.5	8.8	0.6	0	100	82.6
Venezuela	18,991	6,900	1,505	90.9	8.5	0.6	0	100	82.5
Brazil	135,385	23,278	5,117	66.6	30.5	2.7	0.2	100	82.1
Malaysia	18,382	27,007	5,831	61.4	35.3	3.1	0.2	100	81.5
Chile	12,461	49,032	11,742	45	48	6.6	0.4	100	81.4
India	767,612	4,706	1,040	94.4	5.2	0.3	0	100	81.3
Switzerland	6,101	512,562	95,916	5.2	46	38.8	10	100	80.6
Sweden	7,299	299,441	52,677	15.6	48.3	29.2	6.9	100	80.3
Egypt	52,710	7,285	1,852	90.4	9	0.6	0	100	80.3
Nigeria	80,462	3,620	894	94.9	4.9	0.3	0	100	80
Colombia	30,464	26,222	6,228	60.2	35.8	3.9	0.2	100	79.7
Seychelles	54	60,003	14,617	40	50	9.2	0.8	100	79.6
Argentina	28,265	15,638	4,032	72.1	26.1	1.7	0.1	100	79.6
Saudi Arabia	16,694	37,346	9,772	53.3	41.1	5.3	0.3	100	79.3
Namibia	1,256	19,899	4,531	67.5	28.3	4.2	0.1	100	78.7
Israel	4,947	137,351	38,164	30	44.8	23.7	1.5	100	78.7
Comoros	388	2,872	670	93.8	6.1	0.2	0	100	78.7
Cyprus	694	119,568	34,874	23.8	56.3	18.6	1.4	100	78.3
Mexico	73,380	35,872	9,718	53.5	40.6	5.7	0.3	100	78
Norway	3,733	380,473	92,859	19.4	32.5	40.6	7.5	100	77.8
Austria	6,761	203,931	57,450	28.2	31.8	37	3	100	77.8
Libya	4,291	28,397	6,563	58.1	35.7	6	0.1	100	77.7
Botswana	1,181	10,348	2,649	81	17.6	1.4	0	100	77.2
Germany	67,068	192,232	49,370	29	33.3	35.1	2.6	100	77.1
Haiti	5,813	3,532	960	92.3	7.5	0.2	0	100	76.1
Angola	9,273	14,708	3,934	69.1	28.8	2.1	0	100	75.6
Central African Republic	2,370	800	241	99.1	0.9	0	0	100	74.8
Bolivia	5,800	4,604	1,368	89.3	10.4	0.3	0	100	74.4
Zambia	6,151	1,817	548	96.8	3.2	0	0	100	74.1
Czech Republic	8,437	44,975	15,541	40	53.2	6.4	0.3	100	74
Singapore	3,955	281,764	90,466	20	34.2	41.4	4.4	100	73.9
Kuwait	2,291	119,101	42,897	21.8	55.5	21.5	1.2	100	73.8
Poland	30,255	26,056	9,109	55	41.5	3.3	0.1	100	73.7
Taiwan	18,359	151,752	53,336	22.5	45.1	30.8	1.7	100	73.6
Netherlands	12,914	185,588	83,631	23.3	30.9	43.6	2.2	100	73.2
Belize	188	9,998	3,130	76.3	22.6	1.1	0	100	73.1
Suriname	344	14,250	4,544	68.8	29.6	1.6	0	100	73
Nicaragua	3,424	3,432	1,147	92.5	7.3	0.1	0	100	73
Romania	16,692	14,044	5,137	69.3	29.2	1.4	0.1	100	73
Lesotho	1,079	3,457	1,105	92.4	7.5	0.1	0	100	72.9
Paraguay	3,910	10,934	3,726	73.2	25.6	1.3	0	100	72.8
Swaziland	628	4,360	1,393	90	9.8	0.2	0	100	72.7
Panama	2,322	22,292	7,509	57.3	38.5	4.2	0	100	72.7
Rwanda	5,306	723	245	99.3	0.7	0	0	100	72.7
Sao Tome and Principe	86	2,721	959	94.3	5.7	0.1	0	100	72.7
Canada	27,173	251,034	90,252	30	21.5	44.9	3.7	100	72.7
Korea	38,350	79,475	30,938	25.3	59.5	14.5	0.7	100	72.6
Papua New Guinea	3,752	8,470	2,821	81.1	18	0.8	0	100	72.4
Cape Verde	295	16,313	5,478	65	32.5	2.5	0	100	72.3
Antigua and Barbuda	63	19,011	6,281	58.8	38.3	3	0	100	72.2
Costa Rica	3,246	28,124	9,532	54.1	40.2	5.7	0.1	100	72.2
Dominica	50	24,086	8,349	55	40.3	4.7	0.1	100	72
St. Kitts and Nevis	34	23,613	8,185	56.3	39.1	4.6	0.1	100	71.9
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	71	10,196	3,492	73.8	25.1	1.1	0	100	71.9
Grenada	67	14,473	5,017	67.5	30.7	1.7	0	100	71.9
New Zealand	3,234	182,548	76,607	25.6	34.1	38.1	2.3	100	71.8
Ecuador	8,723	12,350	4,403	69.8	28.8	1.4	0	100	71.4
El Salvador	3,738	12,039	4,483	70	28.7	1.3	0	100	71
Ireland	3,488	183,804	75,573	20.9	36.5	40.4	2.2	100	70.9
Kenya	20,757	2,843	1,049	94.2	5.7	0.1	0	100	70.9
Oman	1,872	48,415	18,152	40	47.8	12	0.2	100	70.8
Peru	18,865	18,227	6,705	58.5	38.9	2.6	0	100	70.8
Gambia	908	864	324	99.2	0.8	0	0	100	70.8
Congo-Brazzaville	2,024	3,892	1,420	91.2	8.6	0.1	0	100	70.8
United Arab Emirates	3,777	126,791	51,882	20	50.6	28.2	1.3	100	70.5
Qatar	1,278	153,294	58,237	25	38.3	35	1.7	100	70.5
Portugal	8,614	89,074	38,846	25.8	54.8	18.7	0.8	100	70.1
Mozambique	11,441	811	313	99.3	0.7	0	0	100	70
Jamaica	1,719	11,401	4,393	70	28.8	1.2	0	100	69.9
Uruguay	2,400	47,002	17,998	39.6	48.3	11.9	0.2	100	69.8
Uganda	15,107	750	294	99.4	0.6	0	0	100	69.6
DR Congo	31,854	321	124	99.9	0.1	0	0	100	69.6
China	998,254	22,230	8,023	58.4	39.1	2.4	0.1	100	69.5
Madagascar	10,359	448	177	99.8	0.2	0	0	100	69.4
Guyana	474	3,801	1,506	91.6	8.3	0.1	0	100	69.2
Fiji	523	6,473	2,630	85	14.6	0.4	0	100	69
France	48,124	295,933	141,850	21.7	22.9	50.8	4.6	100	69
Barbados	200	22,289	8,108	55	41.5	3.5	0	100	69
Eritrea	2,781	2,125	875	96.3	3.7	0	0	100	68.9
Macedonia, FYR	1,561	11,543	4,743	69.3	29.6	1.1	0	100	68.8
Sierra Leone	2,897	681	273	99.6	0.4	0	0	100	68.8
Ghana	13,501	1,811	743	97.7	2.3	0	0	100	68.6
St. Lucia	119	13,087	5,296	66.3	32.5	1.2	0	100	68.5
Tunisia	7,452	21,084	8,823	55	41.5	3.5	0	100	68.2
Gabon	869	21,860	9,240	55	41.3	3.7	0	100	68.2
Solomon Islands	298	9,868	4,261	73.8	25.3	1	0	100	68.1
Morocco	21,355	11,398	4,750	70	28.9	1.1	0	100	68.1
Côte d'Ivoire	11,501	2,640	1,104	95	4.9	0.1	0	100	68.1
Sri Lanka	14,326	5,033	2,101	87.9	11.9	0.2	0	100	68
Turkmenistan	3,352	36,570	15,305	40	52.1	7.8	0.1	100	68
Georgia	3,172	21,640	9,178	54.7	41.8	3.5	0	100	68
Togo	3,693	2,450	1,049	95.6	4.3	0	0	100	67.9
United Kingdom	48,220	243,570	111,524	18	28.8	50	3.2	100	67.7
Mauritania	1,832	1,967	865	97	3	0	0	100	67.7
Burkina Faso	7,721	1,273	543	98.7	1.3	0	0	100	67.7
Djibouti	508	3,465	1,488	92.8	7.2	0.1	0	100	67.5
Chad	5,485	1,131	483	99	1	0	0	100	67.5
Trinidad and Tobago	987	15,088	6,459	60	38.5	1.5	0	100	67.4
Malawi	7,417	207	89	100	0	0	0	100	67.3
Guinea	5,301	882	380	99.4	0.6	0	0	100	67.3
Iceland	253	211,592	104,733	20	30	47.3	2.7	100	67.3
Tonga	54	15,905	7,217	58.8	39.8	1.5	0	100	67.2
Senegal	6,423	2,597	1,125	95.3	4.7	0	0	100	67.2
Cameroon	10,459	2,603	1,115	95.2	4.8	0	0	100	67.2
Vanuatu	138	6,068	2,753	85	14.7	0.3	0	100	67.1
Benin	4,733	3,187	1,398	93.6	6.3	0.1	0	100	67.1
Samoa	92	34,537	15,132	40	53	6.9	0.1	100	67
Cambodia	9,151	2,644	1,155	95	4.9	0	0	100	67
Yemen	12,192	4,951	2,193	88.3	11.6	0.2	0	100	66.8
Iran	53,270	8,727	3,846	75	24.4	0.6	0	100	66.8
Liberia	2,118	2,173	987	96.5	3.5	0	0	100	66.7
Tanzania	22,038	951	423	99.3	0.7	0	0	100	66.6
Laos	3,618	5,393	2,411	86.7	13.1	0.2	0	100	66.5
Lithuania	2,537	23,411	10,635	47.5	48.5	3.9	0	100	66.5
Myanmar	34,180	2,214	941	97	3	0	0	100	66.4
Finland	4,195	171,821	95,095	29	22.3	47.2	1.6	100	66.4
Maldives	210	5,556	2,480	85	14.8	0.2	0	100	66.3
Bahamas	242	41,106	17,842	35	55.9	9	0.1	100	66.2
Spain	37,206	123,997	63,306	17.4	52.4	29	1.1	100	66.1
Mongolia	1,855	14,214	6,433	61.1	37.6	1.3	0	100	66.1
Syrian Arab Republic	13,352	7,073	3,198	82.7	16.9	0.4	0	100	66
Latvia	1,787	24,285	11,338	45	50.9	4	0	100	66
Greece	9,105	102,971	53,937	20.4	53.7	25.1	0.8	100	65.9
Jordan	3,858	14,364	6,589	60.3	38.3	1.4	0	100	65.9
Kyrgyz Republic	3,568	5,385	2,432	85.9	13.9	0.2	0	100	65.9
Viet Nam	61,765	4,857	2,215	87.8	12	0.2	0	100	65.8
West Bank and Gaza	1,739	8,979	4,200	73.1	26.3	0.6	0	100	65.8
Equatorial Guinea	365	19,525	9,130	55	42.6	2.4	0	100	65.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina	2,985	11,173	5,139	68.2	30.9	0.9	0	100	65.8
Luxembourg	390	315,240	182,768	15	22.5	57	5.5	100	65.7
Estonia	1,055	33,701	15,724	40	53.3	6.6	0.1	100	65.7
Guinea-Bissau	836	424	199	99.9	0.1	0	0	100	65.7
Albania	2,237	9,450	4,451	72.7	26.6	0.7	0	100	65.6
Niger	7,014	937	434	99.3	0.7	0	0	100	65.5
Algeria	23,982	10,100	4,673	70	29.2	0.7	0	100	65.5
Sudan	23,811	1,291	595	98.9	1.1	0	0	100	65.4
Burundi	4,729	293	137	99.9	0.1	0	0	100	65.2
Azerbaijan	6,276	16,344	7,721	57.1	41.4	1.5	0	100	65.1
Croatia	3,498	26,551	12,639	41.2	54.1	4.7	0	100	65.1
Italy	49,117	241,383	138,653	20	20.5	56.5	3	100	65
Mali	6,464	955	455	99.4	0.6	0	0	100	64.7
Moldova	2,692	3,854	1,874	91.8	8.1	0.1	0	100	64.7
Nepal	17,273	1,998	951	97.7	2.3	0	0	100	64.7
Bangladesh	104,135	1,894	908	97.9	2.1	0	0	100	64.6
Mauritius	935	37,308	19,247	40	52.5	7.4	0.1	100	64.5
Hungary	7,915	28,379	14,068	40	55	4.9	0	100	64
Armenia	2,263	5,613	2,793	85.5	14.3	0.2	0	100	63.9
Tajikistan	4,022	3,168	1,581	94.3	5.7	0.1	0	100	63.8
Pakistan	106,365	4,248	2,106	90.8	9	0.1	0	100	63.8
Ethiopia	42,750	411	207	99.9	0.1	0	0	100	63.6
Australia	16,617	402,578	219,505	6.9	23.7	62.6	6.8	100	63.6
Japan	104,315	216,694	110,294	9.2	37.7	50.6	2.5	100	63.5
Montenegro	467	21,340	10,929	45	52.6	2.4	0	100	63.4
Belgium	8,387	255,573	148,141	17.4	22.1	57.3	3.2	100	62.6
Serbia	7,527	15,175	7,978	56.8	42	1.3	0	100	62.5
Bulgaria	5,991	16,818	8,825	55.2	43.4	1.4	0	100	62.5
Belarus	7,543	2,407	1,271	96.8	3.1	0	0	100	62.2
Malta	330	71,448	42,898	18.8	65	15.9	0.3	100	59.5
Bahrain	571	44,822	26,675	28.7	60	11.2	0	100	58.5
Brunei Darussalam	286	51,373	31,527	26.2	58.7	15	0	100	58.5
Slovenia	1,655	64,067	44,932	19.4	60.6	19.9	0.1	100	53.5
Slowakia	4,303	27,224	20,740	19.8	77.8	2.4	0	100	44.7

Lihat pula[sunting | sunting sumber]

2

Referensi[sunting | sunting sumber]

^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama hydra
^ Fletcher, Michael A. (March 10, 2013). "Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy". Washington Post. Diakses tanggal March 23, 2013.
^ Wilkinson, Richard; Pickett, Kate (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better. Allen Lane. hlm. 352. ISBN 978-1-84614-039-6.
^ Easterly, W (2007). "Inequality does cause underdevelopment: Insights from a new instrument" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. 84 (2): 755–776. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.002. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2016-03-04. Diakses tanggal 2015-11-02.
^ Castells-Quintana, David; Royuela, Vicente (2012). "Unemployment and long-run economic growth: The role of income inequality and urbanisation" (PDF). Investigaciones Regionales. 12 (24): 153–173. Diakses tanggal 17 October 2013.
^ Stiglitz, J (2009). "The global crisis, social protection and jobs" (PDF). International Labour Review. 148: 1–2. doi:10.1111/j.1564-913x.2009.00046.x.
^ Temple, J (1999). "The New Growth Evidence" (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 37 (1): 112–156. doi:10.1257/jel.37.1.112. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2015-10-18. Diakses tanggal 2015-11-02.
^ Clarke, G (1995). "More evidence on income distribution and growth" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. 47: 403–427. doi:10.1016/0304-3878(94)00069-o.
^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama BanerjeeDuflo
^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama BergOstryEE
^ Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of (log) annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of (log) permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory (log) earnings." Thus, in fact, the increase in earnings inequality is in lifetime income. Furthermore, they find that it remains difficult for someone to move up the earnings distribution (though they do find upward mobility for women in their lifetime). See their "Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937," Quarterly Journal of Economics. 125, no. 1 (2010): 91–128.
^ [1] Diarsipkan 2017-10-19 di Wayback Machine. Credit Suisse, Research Institute – Global Wealth Databook 2013

Bacaan lanjutan[sunting | sunting sumber]

Buku

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Also available as Smeeding, Timothy M.; Thompson, Jeffrey P. (2011). "Recent trends in income inequality (book chapter)". Research in Labor Economics (book series). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 32: 1–50. doi:10.1108/S0147-9121(2011)0000032004.

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Makalah

Burkhauser, R. V.; Feng, S.; Jenkins, S. P. (2009). "Using the P90/P10 index to measure US inequality trends with Current Population Survey data: A view from inside the Census Bureau vaults". Review of Income and Wealth. 55 (1): 166–185. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00305.x.
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Ravallion, Martin (2005). World Bank, 5 May, Policy Research Working Paper no. WPS 3579, A poverty-inequality trade-off? Diarsipkan 2012-07-08 di Wayback Machine.
Sawhill, Isabel. "Do We Face a Permanently Divided Society?" The Economics of Inequality, Poverty, and Discrimination in the 21st Century Ed. Robert S. Rycroft. The University of Mary Washington, 2012.
Smeeding, Timothy and Thompson, Jeffrey. "Inequality in the Great Recession – The Case of the United States". FRDB International Income Inequality Project (July 2011). Working paper.
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Voitchovsky, Sarah. "The effects of inequality on growth: perspectives from the theoretical literature." Working paper.

Pranala luar[sunting | sunting sumber]

Media terkait Kesenjangan ekonomi di Wikimedia Commons
Levy, Frank (2008). "Distribution of Income". Dalam David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (edisi ke-2nd). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267.
A portal dedicated to the topic of economic inequality
Small Inequality Measures Calculus (and On-Line Calculator)
The UC Atlas of Global Inequality Diarsipkan 2015-08-23 di Wayback Machine. explores some aspects of inequality using online, downloadable maps and graphics.
Population Health Forum website – group seeking to improve health by addressing inequality.
Russell Sage Foundation. "Social Inequality". Working Papers. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (Web page) tanggal May 29, 2006. Diakses tanggal March 2, 2006.
Leigh, A. and Jencks, C. (2005). "Inequality and Health: Long-Run Evidence from a Panel of Countries" (PDF). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2008-02-27. Diakses tanggal November 30, 2005.
Clarkwest, A and Jencks, C. (2003). "Inequality and Mortality in Rich Countries: Who Owns the Null Hypothesis?" (PDF). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal May 28, 2006. Diakses tanggal November 30, 2005.
The Inequality Predicament United Nations Report on the World Social Situation 2005
Two Americas: One Rich, One Poor? Understanding Income Inequality in the United States Diarsipkan 2007-06-13 di Wayback Machine.
Has U.S. Income Inequality Really Increased? Accessed 2007-06-11.
Measuring Trends in Leisure: The Allocation of Time Over Five Decades Diarsipkan 2013-01-21 di Wayback Machine. studies the trade-offs between earning income and enjoying leisure
Data from the Inequality Survey
Decreasing Inequality Under Latin America's "Social Democratic" and "Populist" Governments: Is the Difference Real? from the Center for Economic and Policy Research
Wealth and Poverty: Center for Global Studies at the University of Illinois Diarsipkan 2013-05-08 di Wayback Machine.
Thomas Piketty's presentation Inequality & Capitalism in the Long-Run Diarsipkan 2016-03-12 di Wayback Machine. based on Capital in the Twenty-First Century
"Wealth Gap" – A Guide (AP News – January 2014).
Economic and Social Inequality in Asia and Pacific: 12 Things to Know Asian Development Bank
As inequality soars, the nervous super rich are already planning their escapes. The Guardian. 23 January 2015.
Asia’s Wealth Inequality Problem. The Diplomat. October 23, 2015.

[hydra-1] Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama hydra

[WaPoLifespan-2] Fletcher, Michael A. (March 10, 2013). "Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy". Washington Post. Diakses tanggal March 23, 2013.

[Spirit_Level-3] Wilkinson, Richard; Pickett, Kate (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better. Allen Lane. hlm. 352. ISBN 978-1-84614-039-6.

[biu.ac.il-4] Easterly, W (2007). "Inequality does cause underdevelopment: Insights from a new instrument" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. 84 (2): 755–776. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.002. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2016-03-04. Diakses tanggal 2015-11-02.

[Castells-Quintana-5] Castells-Quintana, David; Royuela, Vicente (2012). "Unemployment and long-run economic growth: The role of income inequality and urbanisation" (PDF). Investigaciones Regionales. 12 (24): 153–173. Diakses tanggal 17 October 2013.

[ilo.org-6] Stiglitz, J (2009). "The global crisis, social protection and jobs" (PDF). International Labour Review. 148: 1–2. doi:10.1111/j.1564-913x.2009.00046.x.

[The_New_Growth_Evidence-7] Temple, J (1999). "The New Growth Evidence" (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 37 (1): 112–156. doi:10.1257/jel.37.1.112. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2015-10-18. Diakses tanggal 2015-11-02.

[www-wds.worldbank.org-8] Clarke, G (1995). "More evidence on income distribution and growth" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. 47: 403–427. doi:10.1016/0304-3878(94)00069-o.

[BanerjeeDuflo-9] Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama BanerjeeDuflo

[BergOstryEE-10] Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama BergOstryEE

[11] Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of (log) annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of (log) permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory (log) earnings." Thus, in fact, the increase in earnings inequality is in lifetime income. Furthermore, they find that it remains difficult for someone to move up the earnings distribution (though they do find upward mobility for women in their lifetime). See their "Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937," Quarterly Journal of Economics. 125, no. 1 (2010): 91–128.

[12] [1] Diarsipkan 2017-10-19 di Wayback Machine. Credit Suisse, Research Institute – Global Wealth Databook 2013

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